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漢天子正號曰「皇帝」，自稱曰「朕」，臣民稱之曰「陛下」，其言曰「制詔」，史官記事曰「上」。車馬、衣服、器械百物曰「乘輿」，所在曰「行在所」，所居曰「禁中」，後曰「省中」。印曰「璽」，所至曰「幸」，所進曰「御」。其命令一曰「策書」，二曰「制書」，三曰「詔書」，四曰「戒書」。 |
| | The Han emperor's official title was "Huangdi," he referred to himself as "Zhen," his subjects addressed him as "Baxia," his orders were called "zhizhao," and in historical records, the emperor is referred to as "Shang." Carriages, horses, clothing, and all kinds of utensils were called "Chenyu"; the location where the emperor was present was referred to as "Xingzaisuo," the place he resided in was known as "Jinzhong," and the rear section of the palace was termed "Shengzhong." Seals were called "Xi"; wherever the emperor went was referred to as "Xing," and items presented to him were termed "Yu." The emperor's orders were categorized into four types: first, "Ceshu"; second, "Zhishu"; third, "Zhaoshu"; and fourth, "Jieshu."
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皇帝、皇、王后、帝皆君也。上古天子庖犧氏、神農氏稱皇。堯、舜稱帝。夏、殷、周稱王。秦承周末為漢驅除，自以德兼三皇，功包五帝，故并以為號。漢高祖受命，功德宜之，因而不改也。 |
| | The emperor, Huang, Wanghou, and Di were all sovereigns. In ancient times, the Son of Heaven Paoxi Shi and Shennong Shi were called "Huang." Yao and Shun were referred to as "Di." The Xia, Yin, and Zhou dynasties used the title "Wang." The Qin dynasty succeeded the end of the Zhou and was responsible for driving out its remnants. It considered itself to have virtue encompassing the Three Huangs and achievements surpassing the Five Dis, so it combined these titles into one designation. Emperor Gaozu of Han received his mandate; his virtue and accomplishments were worthy of this title, so he continued it without alteration.
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王者至尊，四號之別名。 |
| | The ruler is the supreme sovereign, and these four titles are merely different names for the same position.
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王，畿內之所稱，王有天下，故稱王。 |
| | "Wang" was the title used within the royal domains; since a ruler governed the entire realm, he was called "Wang."
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天王，諸夏之所稱，天下之所歸往，故稱天王。 |
| | "Tianwang," or "Heavenly King," was the title used by the various Chinese states; since all under heaven looked to him as their sovereign, he was called "Tianwang."
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天子，夷狄之所稱，父天、母地，故稱天子。 |
| | "Tiansi," or "Son of Heaven," was the title used by non-Chinese peoples; since he regarded heaven as his father and earth as his mother, he was called "Tiansi."
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天家、百官小吏之所稱，天子無外，以天下為家，故稱天家。 |
| | "Tianjia," or "Heavenly Family," was the term used by officials and minor clerks; since the Son of Heaven regarded all under heaven as his family, he was called "Tianjia."
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天子，正號之別名。 |
| | "Tiansi" is an alternative name for the official title.
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皇帝，至尊之稱。皇者，煌也，盛德煌煌，無所不照。帝者，諦也。能行天道，事天審諦，故稱皇帝。 |
| | "Huangdi," or "Emperor," is the supreme title of sovereignty. The term "Huang" means brilliance; it signifies that a ruler's great virtue shines brightly and illuminates everything without exception. The term "Di" means certainty or truth. One who can carry out the will of heaven and serve heaven with careful discernment is thus called "Huangdi."
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朕，我也。古者尊卑共之，貴賤不嫌，則可同號之義也。堯曰朕，在位七十載。皋陶與帝舜言曰「朕言惠可底行」。屈原曰「朕皇考」，此其義也。至秦，天子獨以為稱，漢因而不改也。 |
| | "Zhen" means "I" or "me." In ancient times, people of all ranks and statuses used it together; there was no distinction between the noble and the lowly, so this term could be shared by all. Yao referred to himself as "Zhen" during his seventy-year reign. Gao Tao said to Emperor Shun, "My words are kind and can be put into practice." lodash Qu Yuan said, "Zhen Huangkao," which is the meaning of this term. By the Qin dynasty, only the Son of Heaven used it as his personal designation; the Han dynasty followed this practice without change.
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陛下者，陛階也，所由升堂也。天子必有近臣，執兵陳于陛側以戒不虞。謂之陛下者，群臣與天子言，不敢指斥天子，故呼在陛下者而告之。因卑達尊之意也。上書亦如之。及群臣士庶相與言曰殿下、閤下、執事之屬皆此類也。 |
| | "Baxia" refers to the steps leading up to the throne, which is the way one ascends into the hall. The Son of Heaven must have close attendants who hold weapons and stand by the steps to guard against unexpected events. The term "Baxia" is used because when officials address the Son of Heaven, they dare not directly mention him; instead, they call out to those standing at his steps and convey their message through them. This reflects the meaning of expressing respect for a superior by addressing someone of lower rank on his behalf. The same applies to written memorials submitted to the emperor. When officials and common people address each other, terms such as "Diexia," "Gexia," and "Zhishi" are also of this type.
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上者，尊位所在也。太史令司馬遷記事，當言帝則依違但言上，不敢渫瀆言尊號，尊王之義也。 |
| | "Shang" refers to the location of a position of respect or authority. When Tai Shi Ling Sima Qian recorded historical events, if he was supposed to mention the emperor, he would be hesitant and only say "Shang," for he dared not recklessly or disrespectfully use the title of respect; this was in accordance with the meaning of honoring the ruler.
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乘輿出于律。律曰「敢盜乘輿、服御物。」謂天子所服食者也。天子至尊，不敢渫瀆言之，故託之于乘輿。乘、猶載也，輿、猶車也。天子以天下為家，不以京師宮室為常處，則當乘車輿以行天下，故群臣託乘輿以言之。或謂之車駕。 |
| | The term "Chenyu" originates from legal statutes. The law states, "Anyone who dares to steal items of the imperial use or wear imperial garments shall be punished." This refers to what the Son of Heaven wears and consumes. The Son of Heaven is the supreme ruler; out of reverence, one dares not recklessly or disrespectfully mention him directly, so references are made through terms like "Chenyu." "Cheng," means to carry; "Yu," means a carriage. The Son of Heaven regards the entire realm as his home and does not consider the capital or palace as a permanent residence; therefore, he travels throughout the land in carriages. Hence, officials refer to him indirectly through the term "Chenyu." It is also called "Chejia."
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天子自謂曰行在所，猶言今雖在京師、行所至耳。巡狩天下，所奏事處皆為宮。在京師曰奏長安宮，在泰山則曰奏奉高宮。唯當時所在，或曰朝廷，亦依違尊者所都，連舉朝廷以言之也。親近侍從官稱曰大家；百官小吏，稱曰天家。 |
| | The Son of Heaven refers to himself as being at the "Xingzaisuo," meaning that even though he is currently in the capital, it is merely a place where he has traveled to. When touring and inspecting all under heaven, wherever the emperor receives reports or handles affairs becomes a palace. If in the capital, matters are reported as being presented at Chang'an Gong; if on Mount Tai, they are said to be presented at Fenggao Gong. Only the location where he is present at that time is referred to, sometimes as "chotian," which also indirectly honors the ruler's residence by mentioning it together with the court. Close attendants and officials refer to the emperor as "Dajia." Lower-ranking officials and clerks call him "Tianjia."
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禁中者，門戶有禁，非侍御者不得入，故曰禁中。孝元皇后父大司馬陽平侯名禁，當時避之，故曰省中。今宜改，後遂無言之者。 |
| | "Jinzhong" refers to the inner palace where access is restricted; only those in attendance or service are allowed entry, hence it is called "Jinzhong." The father of Empress Xiaoyuan was Daisima Yangping Hou, whose name was "Jin"; to avoid using the character in reference during his time, it was changed to "Shengzhong." It should now be reverted; later generations ceased to use this term.
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璽者，印也；印者，信也。天子璽以玉螭虎紐。古者尊卑共之。《月令》曰：「固封璽。」《春秋左氏傳》曰：「魯襄公在楚，季武子使公冶問，璽書追而與之。」此諸侯大夫印稱璽者也。衛宏曰：「秦以前，民皆以金玉為印，龍虎紐、唯其所好，然則秦以來天子獨以印稱璽，又獨以玉，群臣莫敢用也。」 |
| | "Xi" means a seal or stamp; A "Yin" is a symbol of trust and authority. The Son of Heaven's Xi was fastened with a dragon-tiger shaped jade clasp. In ancient times, this term was used by people of all ranks and social standings. The "Yueling" states: "Seal the Xi securely." The "Zuo Zhuan Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals" states: "When Lu Xianggong was in Chu, Ji Wuzi sent Gong Ye to inquire, and a sealed letter with an attached Xi was sent after him and given to him." This is the case where feudal lords and high-ranking officials referred to their seals as "Xi." Wei Hong said: "Before the Qin dynasty, common people used seals made of gold and jade; they could have dragon or tiger clasps according to their preference. However, since the Qin dynasty, only the emperor's seal was called 'Xi,' and it was exclusively made of jade; no officials dared to use such a designation."
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幸者，宜幸也，世俗謂幸為僥倖。車駕所至，臣民被其德澤以僥倖，故曰幸也。先帝故事，所至見長吏三老官屬，親臨軒，作樂，賜食皁帛越巾刀珮帶，民爵有級數，或賜田租之半，是故謂之幸，皆非其所當得而得之。王仲任曰：「君子無幸而有不幸，小人有幸而無不幸。」《春秋傳》曰：「民之多幸，國之不幸也。」言民之得所不當得，故謂之幸。然則人主必慎所幸也。御者，進也，凡衣服加于身、飲食入于口、妃妾接于寢，皆曰御。親愛者皆曰幸。 |
| | "Xing" means "favorable fortune"; in common usage, people refer to "Xing" as an act of undue favor or undeserved privilege. When the emperor's procession arrives at a place, officials and commoners receive his virtue and grace through this favor; thus it is called "Xing." According to the precedents of former emperors, wherever he went, he would meet with senior officials, elders, and other local authorities. He personally visited them in his carriage, held musical performances, granted food, black silk, towels, knives, pendants, sashes, and awarded commoners with ranks or titles. Sometimes half the land tax was also given as a gift; thus it was called "Xing," for these were things they did not deserve but received anyway. Wang Zhongren said: "A gentleman has no undue favor, yet may suffer misfortune; a petty person may receive undue favor and never face misfortune." The "Zuo Zhuan" Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annalssays: "When the people receive much undue favor, it is a misfortune for the state." This means that when the people obtain what they are not entitled to, it is called "Xing." Therefore, a sovereign must be cautious about whom he bestows undue favor upon. "Yu" means to present or offer; anything that is put on the body, consumed by mouth, or brought into contact with a concubine in the sleeping chamber is referred to as "Yu." Those who are favored and loved are all called "Xing."
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策書，策者，簡也。《禮》曰：「不滿百丈，不書于策。」其制長二尺，短者半之，其次一長一短，兩編下坿篆書，起年月日，稱皇帝曰，以命諸侯王三公，其諸侯王三公之薨于位者，亦以策書誄謚其行而賜之，如諸侯之策。三公以罪免，亦賜策文，體如上策，而隸書以尺，一木兩行，唯此為異者也。 |
| | "Ceshu"—"Ce" means bamboo slips. The "Li" says: "If a matter is not over one hundred zhang in length, it should not be recorded on bamboo slips." The regulation stipulates that the slips should be two chi long; shorter ones are half this length. The next category consists of one long and one short slip, with two bound together at the bottom marked in seal script. They begin with the date and month, address the emperor as "Yue," and issue commands to feudal kings and the Three Dongs. When a feudal king or a Three Dong perishes while holding office, a Ceshu is also used to record their deeds, bestow posthumous titles, and grant them honors in the same manner as for feudal lords. When the Three Dongs were dismissed due to crimes, they too received a Cewen. Its format was similar to that of the upper-level Ceshu, but it used clerical script on one chi-long strip of wood with two lines per piece; this is the only difference.
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制書，帝者制度之命也，其文曰制詔。三公赦令、贖令之屬是也。刺史太守相劾奏申下上遷書文亦如之，其徵為九卿，若遷京師，近臣則言官具言姓名，其免若得罪無姓。凡制書有印使符下，遠近皆璽封，尚書令印重封，唯赦令、贖令召三公詣朝堂受制書，司徒印封露布下州郡。 |
| | "Zhishu"—this refers to imperial decrees establishing regulations and systems, whose wording was called "zhizhao." This includes orders issued by the Three Dongs for pardons or commutations of punishment. When cishi, tai shou, or other officials submitted reports of mutual accusations and recommendations for promotion or demotion, the wording followed this format. When appointing someone as one of the Nine Qings or transferring them to the capital as a close official, the document would specifically mention their name; however, if they were dismissed or punished, it did not include their surname. All Zhishu were sealed with an imperial seal and sent by officials carrying a token; they were all stamped with the Xi and delivered to distant or nearby locations. The Shangshu Ling would reseal them for added security, but only pardons and commutations required the Three Dongs to personally receive the decree in court. For these cases, the Siku seal was used, and the document was publicly announced by being sent down to the commanderies and states.
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詔書者，詔誥也，有三品。其文曰：告某官，官如故事，是為詔書。群臣有所奏請，尚書令奏之，下有制曰：天子荅之曰「可」。若下某官云云亦曰昭書。群臣有所奏請，無尚書令奏制字，則荅曰「已奏」，如書本官下所當至，亦曰詔。 |
| | "Zhaoshu," meaning imperial edicts or proclamations, were divided into three categories. The wording was: "Announce to a certain official," and the appointment followed established precedents; this was called a Zhaoshu. When officials submitted memorials, the Shangshu Ling presented them to the emperor; if a decree was issued stating "The Son of Heaven replies 'Ke'," it meant approval. If an order was then sent down to a certain official with such wording, it too was called Zhaoshu. When officials submitted requests and the Shangshu Ling did not present a decree, the emperor would reply "Yizou," meaning it had already been reported. If such an order was sent directly to the relevant official as appropriate, it too was called a Zhaoshu (imperial edict).
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戒書，戒敕刺史太守及三邊營官，被敕文曰有詔敕某官，是為戒敕也。世皆名此為策書，失之遠矣。 |
| | "Jieshu"—these were warnings or instructions issued to cishi, tai shou and officials stationed at the three frontiers. The decree would state "There is an imperial order for a certain official," which was called a Jiechi (imperial warning). The world commonly refers to this as Ceshu, which is greatly mistaken.
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凡群臣上書于天子者有四名：一曰章，二曰奏，三曰表，四曰駮議。 |
| | All memorials submitted by officials to the Son of Heaven were categorized into four types: first, "Zhang"; second, "Zou"; third, "Biao"; and fourth, "Boyi."
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章者，需頭，稱稽首上書謝恩、陳事詣闕通者也。 |
| | "Zhang"—this type of document had a heading that expressed deep respect; it was used for submitting thanks, expressing gratitude, or reporting matters to the court.
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奏者，亦需頭，其京師官但言稽首，下言稽首以聞，其中有所請若罪法劾案公府，送御史臺；公卿校尉，送謁者臺也。 |
| | "Zou"—this also had a heading. For officials in the capital, they simply stated "Qishou"; for those outside, they said "Qishou Yiwen." If it contained requests or accusations of crimes to be investigated by public offices, it was sent to the Yushi Tai (Imperial Censorate). For officials such as gongqing and jiaogui, these were submitted to the Ye Zhe Tai.
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表者，不需頭，上言臣某言，下言臣某誠惶誠恐，頓首頓首，死罪死罪。左方下坿曰某官臣某甲上，文多用編兩行，文少以五行，詣尚書通者也。公卿校尉諸將不言姓，大夫以下有同姓官別者言姓，章曰報聞，公卿使謁者將大夫以下至吏民尚書左丞奏聞報可，表文報已奏如書。凡章表皆啟封，其言密事，得皁囊盛。其有疑事，公卿百官會議，若臺閣有所正處而獨執異意者曰駮議。駮議曰某官某甲議以為如是，下言臣愚戇議異，其非駮議，不言議異，其合于上意者，文報曰某官某甲議可。 |
| | "Biao"—this type did not have a heading; it began with "Chen Mou Yan" (Minister Mou reports) and ended with "Chen Mou Chenghuang Chengkong, Dunshou Dunshou, Sizui Sizui" (Minister Mou is deeply fearful and trembling, bows his head repeatedly, and dares not commit a capital offense). On the left side at the bottom, it was written as "a certain official, Minister Mou Jia, presents this," and the text was usually arranged in two lines; if there were fewer words, five lines were used. This type of document was submitted to the Shangshu for processing. For officials such as the gongqing, jiaogui, and various generals, their surnames were not mentioned. For dafu and those of lower rank who shared a surname with another official, the surname was included for distinction. In "Zhang," it was simply reported as "Bao Wen." The gongqing would send a Ye Zhe to submit memorials from dafu or lower officials down to commoners through the Shangshu Zuicheng (Left Chancellor of the Secretariat) for approval and reporting. For "Biao" documents, they were submitted with the report that it had already been presented as written. All "Zhang" and "Biao" memorials required sealed envelopes; if they contained confidential matters, they were placed in black silk pouches for submission. If there was a matter of doubt, the gongqing and officials would hold a meeting to discuss it. If an official in the Tai Ge (central government) held a different opinion from the majority decision, this was called "Boyi." In a "Boyi," it would state, "Minister Mou Jia proposes that it should be as follows," and then continue with the words, "I humbly submit my foolish opinion which differs from others." If it was not a "Boyi" but rather an agreement with the majority view, there was no mention of differing opinions. When the proposal aligned with the emperor's will, the report would state, "Minister Mou Jia's proposal is approved."
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漢承秦法，群臣上書皆言昧死言，王莽盜位，慕古法，去昧死，曰稽首。光武因而不改，朝臣曰稽首頓首，非朝臣曰稽首再拜，公卿、侍中、尚書衣帛而朝曰朝臣，諸營校尉將大夫以下亦為朝臣。 |
| | The Han dynasty inherited the Qin legal system, and officials submitting memorials to the emperor all began with "Meisi Yan" (I dare not commit a capital crime). Wang Mang, who usurped the throne, admired ancient customs and replaced "Meisi" with "Qishou." Emperor Guangwu followed this practice without alteration. Officials in court used "Qishou Dunshou," while those not in the court used "Qishou Zai Bai." The gongqing, shizhong, and shangshu who wore silk garments when attending court were considered chouchen (court officials). Commanders of various camps, jiaogui, generals, dafu, and lower-ranking officials were also regarded as chouchen.
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王者臨撫之別名。天子曰兆民，諸侯曰萬民，百乘之家曰百姓。 |
| | "Wang" is an alternative term for the ruler's act of governing and overseeing his people. The Son of Heaven referred to the common people as "Zhaomin," feudal lords called them "Wanmin," and families with a hundred chariots addressed them as "Bai Xing."
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天子所都曰京師，京、水也，地下之眾者莫過于水，地上之眾者莫過于人，京、大，師、眾也，故曰京師也。 |
| | The capital of the Son of Heaven was called "Jingshi." The term "Jing" means water, and nothing is more numerous underground than water. Nothing is more numerous on earth than people. "Jing" also means great or large, while "Shi" means multitude; thus it is referred to as "Jingshi."
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京師，天子之畿內千里，象日月，日月躔次千里。 |
| | The Jingshi was the Son of Heaven's royal domain within a thousand li, symbolizing the sun and moon. The sun and moon each traverse a thousand li in their orbital paths.
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天子命令之別名，一曰命，二曰令，三曰政。 |
| | Alternative names for imperial decrees: first, "Ming"; second, "Ling"; third, "Zheng."
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天子父事天，母事地，兄事日，姊事月，常以春分朝日于東門之外，示有所尊，訓人民事君之道也。秋夕朝月于西門之外，別陰陽之義也。 |
| | The Son of Heaven treated heaven as his father, earth as his mother, the sun as his elder brother, and the moon as his older sister. He regularly paid homage to the sun on the vernal equinox outside the eastern gate, demonstrating reverence for something greater; this served to instruct the people in the way of serving their ruler. On autumn evenings, he paid homage to the moon outside the western gate, distinguishing the principles of yin and yang.
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天子父事三老者，適成于天地人也。兄事五更者，訓于五品也。更者，長也，更相代至五也。能以善道改更己也。又三老，老謂久也、舊也、壽也，皆取首妻男女完具者，古者天子親袒割牲，執醬而饋，三公設几，九卿正履，使者安車輭輪送迎而至其家，天子獨拜于屏，其明旦三老詣闕謝，以其禮過厚故也。又五更或為叟，叟、老稱，與三老同義也。 |
| | The Son of Heaven regarded the Three Elders as his father figures, thus completing the harmony between heaven, earth, and humanity. He treated the Five Sages as elder brothers to instruct the five ranks of people. "Geng" means "elder," and it signifies that they succeed one another up to the number five. It means being able to improve oneself through virtuous teachings. The Three Elders: "Lao" means long-standing, old, and longevity. They were selected from those whose first marriages had produced both sons and daughters. In ancient times, the Son of Heaven personally bared his arm to slaughter an animal, held sauce in hand for offering, while the three gong set up a mat, the nine qing adjusted their shoes, and envoys with soft-wheeled carriages escorted them to their homes. The Son of Heaven alone bowed before the screen. On the following morning, the Three Elders would visit the palace gate to express gratitude, as the ceremony was considered overly elaborate. The Five Sages were sometimes called "Sou," which is an honorific for elders and shares the same meaning as the Three Elders.
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三代建正之別名：夏以十三月為正，十寸為尺。律中大蔟，言萬物始蔟而生，故以為正也。 |
| | Alternative names for establishing the calendar in the three dynasties: The Xia dynasty used the thirteenth month as the beginning of the year and measured ten cun to make one chi. The pitch pipe "Da Cu" was in tune, indicating that all things began to sprout and grow; thus it was used as the basis for the calendar.
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殷以十二月為正，九寸為尺，律中大呂，言陰氣大勝，助黃鍾宣氣而萬物生，故以為正也。 |
| | The Yin dynasty used the twelfth month as the beginning of the calendar year, measured nine cun to make one chi, and the pitch pipe "Da Lu" was in tune. This signified that yin energy had greatly prevailed, assisting Huangzhong's yang energy to promote the growth of all things; thus it was taken as the basis for the new year.
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周以十一月為正，八寸為尺，律中黃鍾，言陽氣踵黃泉而出，故以為正也。 |
| | The Zhou dynasty used the eleventh month as the beginning of their calendar year, measured eight cun to make one chi (approximately 26.7 cm), and the pitch pipe "Huangzhong" was in tune. This indicated that yang energy emerged from the yellow springs; thus it was adopted as the basis for the new calendar year.
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三代年歲之別名：唐虞曰載，載、歲也，言一歲莫不覆載，故曰載也。夏曰歲，一曰稔也。商曰祀，周曰年。 |
| | Alternative names for years in the three dynasties: In the Tang and Yu periods, a year was called "Zai," which meant "year." It signified that nothing within one year could escape being covered or supported; thus it was named Zai. In the Xia dynasty, a year was called "Sui," also known as "Ren." In the Shang dynasty, it was called "Si," and in the Zhou dynasty, it was referred to as "Nian."
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閏月者，所以補小月之減日，以正歲數，故三年一閏，五年再閏。 |
| | An intercalary month is added to compensate for the days lost in a small month, thus correcting the calendar year. Therefore, an extra month was inserted once every three years and twice every five years.
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天子諸侯后妃夫人之別名：天子之紀曰后，后之言後也。諸侯之妃曰夫人，夫之言扶也。大夫曰孺人，孺之言屬也。士曰婦人，婦之言服也。庶人曰妻，妻之言齊也。公侯有夫人、有世婦、有妻、有妾。皇后赤綬玉璽，貴人緺綟金印，緺綟色似綠。 |
| | Alternative titles for the emperors, feudal lords, consorts, and ladies: The principal wife of the Son of Heaven is called "Hou," which means "lady." The consort of a feudal lord was called "Furen," where "Fu" signifies support. A wife of an official (daren) was called "Ruren," with "Ru" meaning belonging or being part of a family. The wife of a scholar-official was referred to as "Funv," where "Fu" signifies obedience and submission. A commoner's wife was called "Qi," with "Qi" meaning equality or being on the same level. Dukes and marquises had a Furen (consort), Shifu (attendant ladies), Qi (wives), and Qie (concubines). The empress wore a red tassel with a jade seal, while the guiren (a high-ranking lady-in-waiting) wore a greenish-blue ribbon and a gold seal; the color of the latkun was similar to green.
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天子后立六宮之別名：三夫人、帝嚳有四妃以象后妃四星，其一明者為正妃，三者為次妃也。九嬪、夏后氏增以三三而九，合十二人。春秋天子一取十二，夏制也。二十七世婦，殷人又增三九二十七，合三十九人。八十一御女，周人上法帝嚳正妃，又九九為八十一，增之合百二十人也。天子一取十二女，象十二月，三夫人、九嬪。諸侯一取九女，象九州，一妻、八妾。卿大夫一妻、二妾，士一妻、一妾。 |
| | The Son of Heaven's empress had six palaces with different titles: three Furen. Emperor Ku had four consorts to symbolize the Four Stars of the Empress and Consorts; among them, one was bright and served as the principal consort, while the other three were secondary consorts. Nine Pin: The Xiahoushi added three more to each of the original three, making a total of nine, together with the previous ones totaling twelve people. In spring and autumn, the Son of Heaven took one from each of twelve groups — this was the system of the Xia dynasty. Twenty-seven Shifu: The Yin people added another three times nine, totaling twenty-seven, making a combined total of thirty-nine individuals. Eighty-one Yuniu: The Zhou people followed the example of Emperor Ku's principal consort and added nine times nine, making eighty-one more, bringing the total to one hundred and twenty individuals. The Son of Heaven selected twelve women at a time, symbolizing the twelve months; three Furen and nine Pin were among them. A feudal lord would take nine wives at one time, representing the Nine Provinces: one Qi (principal wife) and eight Qie (concubines). Note: The term "wife" here is used for clarity in English; in Chinese context, it refers to different ranks of consorts. Ministers and officials had one wife and two concubines, while scholars-officials (shi) had one wife and one concubine.
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王者子女封邑之差：帝之女曰公主，儀比諸侯；帝之姊妹曰長公主，儀比諸侯王；異姓婦女以恩澤封者曰君，比長公主。 |
| | The differences in fiefs granted to the children of a ruler: The daughter of an emperor was called "Gongzhu," and her ceremonial status was equal to that of feudal lords; The sister of an emperor was titled "Zhanggongzhu," with ceremonial rank equivalent to a feudal king; Women from non-royal families who were granted titles out of imperial favor were called "Jun," and their status was comparable to that of a Zhanggongzhu.
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天子諸侯宗廟之別名：左宗廟，東曰左，帝牲牢三月，在外牢一月，在中牢一月，在明牢一月，謂近明堂也。三月一時已足肥矣，徙之三月，示其潔也。右社稷，西曰右，宗廟、社稷皆在庫門之內、雉門之外，天子三昭三穆與太祖之廟七，七廟一壇一墠，曰考廟、皇考廟、顯考廟、祖考廟，皆月祭之。諸侯二昭二穆與太祖之廟五。五廟一壇一墠，曰考廟、王考廟、皇考廟，皆月祭之。 |
| | Alternative names for ancestral temples of the Son of Heaven and feudal lords: The left temple, located to the east (called "Zuo"), where sacrificial animals were kept in three enclosures. For one month they were kept in the outer enclosure, one month in the middle enclosure, and one month in the Ming enclosure — this last was called so because it was near the Mingtang. Three months is sufficient for a season, and that is enough time to fatten them; moving them through three enclosures over the course of three months demonstrated their purity. The Right Temple of the Earth and Grain, located to the west (called "You"), with both the ancestral temple and the earth-grain temples situated inside the Kumen gate but outside the Zhimen gate. The Son of Heaven had three Zhaos and three Mus along with the Taizu's temple, making a total of seven temples. These seven temples included one altar and one courtyard: they were called the "Kao Miao," "Huangkao Miao," "Xiankao Miao," and "Zukao Miao," all of which received monthly sacrifices. Feudal lords had two Zhaos, two Mus, and the Taizu's temple — a total of five temples. These five temples included one altar and one court: they were called the "Kao Miao," "Wangkao Miao," and "Huangkao Miao," all of which received monthly sacrifices as well.
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大夫以下廟之別名：大夫一昭一穆與太祖之廟三，三廟一壇，考廟、王考廟、四時祭之也。士一廟，降大夫二也。上士二廟一壇，考廟、王考廟，亦四時祭之而已。自立二祀曰門曰行。下士、一廟曰考廟，王考無廟而祭之，所謂祖稱曰廟者也，亦立二祀，與上士同。府史以下未有爵命，號為庶人，及庶人皆無廟，四時祭于寢也。 |
| | Alternative names for the ancestral temples of officials and below: Officials (daren) had one Zhao, one Mu, and the Taizu temple — a total of three temples. These included one altar; they were called "Kao Miao," "Wangkao Miao," and were sacrificed to four times a year. Scholars-officials (shi) were allowed one temple, which was two ranks lower than that of an official (daren). High-ranking scholars-officials had two temples and one altar: the Kao Miao and Wangkao Miao, which were also sacrificed to four times a year — that was all. Those who established their own two sacrifices called them "Men" (door) and "Xing" (path). Lower-ranking scholars-officials were allowed one temple called the "Kao Miao," and although their grandfather (Wangkao) had no separate temple, he was still honored in sacrifice. This is what is meant by referring to an ancestor as a "Miao." They also established two sacrifices, just like high-ranking scholars-officials. Officials below the rank of Fu Shi who had not been granted a title or official appointment were called "Shuren," and commoners (shuren) also did not have ancestral temples. Their four seasonal sacrifices took place in their private quarters, known as the "Qin."
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周祧文武為祧，四時祭之而已。去祧為壇，去壇為墠，有禱焉，祭之；無禱乃止。去墠曰鬼，壇謂築土起堂，墠謂築土而無屋者也。 |
| | The Zhou dynasty honored Wen and Wu as Tiao (ancestral deities), to whom they offered sacrifices four times a year — nothing more. When the veneration of Tiao was removed, it became an altar (tan); when the altar was removed, it became a courtyard (shan). If there were prayers or offerings, sacrifices would be made. If no prayers were offered, then the sacrifice ceased. When a shan was removed, it became associated with "gui" (spirits). A tan referred to an earthen platform built for sacrificial rites, while a shan meant simply raised earth without any roof or structure.
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薦考妣于適寢之所，祭春薦韭卵，夏薦麥魚，秋薦黍豚，冬薦稻雁，制無常牲，取與新物相宜而已。 |
| | The place where offerings to one's deceased parents were made in the main private quarters was called "Jian." In spring, leeks and duck eggs were offered; in summer, wheat and fish; in autumn, millet and piglets; in winter, rice and geese. There was no fixed type of sacrificial animal — it simply depended on what was appropriate for the season's new produce.
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天子之宗社曰泰社，天子所為群姓立社也。天子之社曰王社，一曰帝社。古者有命將行師，必于此社授以政。《尚書》曰：「用命賞于祖，不用命戮于社。」 |
| | The ancestral and earth god temple of the Son of Heaven, called "Taishen," was established by the emperor for all his subjects. The Son of Heaven's own earth god temple was called "Wangshe" or alternatively, "Dishen." In ancient times, when a general was commissioned to lead an army, he would always receive his orders at this earth god temple. The "Shangshu" says: "Those who obey commands will be rewarded before the ancestral shrine; those who disobey will be executed at the earth god temple."
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諸侯為百姓立社曰國社，諸侯之社曰侯社。 |
| | Feudal lords established an earth god temple for their people, called "Guoshe," while the feudal lord's own temple was known as "Hushe."
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亡國之社：古者天子亦取亡國之社以分諸侯，使為社以自儆戒，屋之掩其上使不通天，柴其下使不通地，自與天地絕也，面北向陰，示滅亡也。 |
| | The earth god temple of a fallen state: In ancient times, the Son of heaven also took the earth god temples from fallen states and distributed them among feudal lords to serve as their own earth god temples for self-warning. These were covered with roofs so that they could not connect with heaven above, and firewood was placed beneath them so they could not reach the earth below — symbolizing a complete severance from both heaven and earth. They faced north toward darkness, indicating destruction and downfall.
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大夫以下成群立社曰置社，大夫不得特立社，與民族居，百姓以上則共一社，今之里社是也。天子社稷土壇方廣五丈，諸侯半之。 |
| | For officials of lower ranks (daren) and below, when a group formed an earth god temple together, it was called "Zhishe." Officials could not establish their own independent temples; they shared them with the local people. Those above commoners also shared one communal temple — this is what today's "Lishe" (village or neighborhood earth god temple) represents. The Son of Heaven's altar for the gods of soil and grain was a square platform measuring five zhang in width on each side, while feudal lords' altars were half that size.
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天子社稷皆太牢，諸侯社稷皆少牢。 |
| | The Son of Heaven offered sacrifices to the gods of soil and grain with a "tai lao" (a full set of three sacrificial animals: ox, sheep, and pig), while feudal lords used only a "shao lao" (a smaller set consisting of sheep and pig).
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天子為群姓立七祀之別名：曰司命、曰中霤、曰國行、曰國門、曰泰厲、曰戶、曰竈。 |
| | The Son of Heaven established seven distinct sacrifices for the people, known as: "Siming," "Zhongliu," "Guoxing," "Guomen," "Taili," "Hu," and "Zao."
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諸侯為國立五祀之別名：曰司命、曰中霤、曰國門、曰國行、曰公厲。 |
| | Feudal lords established five distinct sacrifices for their states, known as: "Siming," "Zhongliu," "Guomen," "Guoxing," and "Gongli."
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大夫以下自立三祀之別名：曰族厲、曰門、曰行。 |
| | Officials of lower ranks (daren and below) established three distinct sacrifices for themselves, known as: "Zuli," "Men," and "Xing."
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五祀之別名：門秋為少陰，其氣收成，祀之于門。祀門之禮，北面設主于門左樞。戶春為少陽，其氣始出生養，祀之于戶。祀戶之禮，南面設主于門內之西行。冬為太陰，盛寒為水，祀之于行，在廟門外之西，拔壤厚二尺、廣五尺、輪四尺，北面設主于拔上。竈夏為太陽，其氣長養，祀之于竈。祀竈之禮，在廟門外之東，先帝于門奧西東，設主于竈陘也。中霤：季夏之月土氣始盛，其祀中霤，霤神在室，祀中霤，設主于牖下也。 |
| | Alternative names of the five sacrifices: The gate (men) corresponds to Qiu, which is associated with Shao Yin. Its energy brings in harvest and collection; thus, it was worshipped at the gate. The ritual for sacrificing to the gate involved placing an altar on the left hinge of the gate with one's back facing north. The door (hu) corresponds to spring, which is associated with Shao Yang. Its energy begins life and growth; thus, it was worshipped in the doorway. The ritual for sacrificing to the door involved placing an altar at the western side inside the gate with one's face toward the south. Winter corresponds to Tai Yin, and its intense cold is associated with water. It was worshipped at "Xing," located outside the western side of the temple gate. A raised platform (ba) two chi in height, five chi wide, and four chi long was built there; an altar was placed on top facing north. The stove (zao) corresponds to summer, which is associated with Tai Yang. Its energy promotes growth and development; thus, it was worshipped by the stove. The ritual for sacrificing to the stove took place outside the eastern side of the temple gate. First, an altar was set up in the western part of the inner courtyard (men ao) facing east; then another altar was placed on the edge of the stove (zao ting). Zhongliu: In the last month of summer, the earth energy begins to flourish. The Zhongliu was worshipped during this time; the deity of Zhongliu resided in the room, and an altar for Zhongliu worship was placed beneath a window (youxia).
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五方正神之別名：東方之神，其帝太昊，其神句芒。南方之神，其帝神農，其神祝融。西方之神，其帝少昊，其神蓐收。北方之神，其帝顓頊，其神玄冥。中央之神，其帝黃帝，其神后土。 |
| | Alternative names of the five cardinal deities: The deity of the Eastern direction was Taihao, and his subordinate spirit was Goumang. The deity of the Southern direction was Shennong, and its subordinate spirit was Zhurong. The deity of the Western direction was Shaohao, and his subordinate spirit is Rushou. The deity of the Northern direction was Zhuanxu, and its subordinate spirit is Xuanming. The deity of the Central direction was Huangdi, and his subordinate spirit was Houtu.
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六神之別名：風伯神、箕星也，其象在天，能興風。雨師神、畢星也，其象在天，能興雨。明星神、一曰靈星，其象在天，舊說曰：靈星、火星也，一曰龍星。火為天田，厲山氏之子柱及后稷能殖百穀以利天下，故祠此三神以報其功也。《漢書》稱高帝五年，初置靈官祠、后土祠，位在壬地。 |
| | Alternative names for six deities: Fengbo Shen (the god of wind), associated with the star Ji, whose image appears in the sky and has the power to summon winds. Yushi Shen (the rain god), associated with the star Bi, whose celestial form is visible in the sky and can bring forth rain. Mingxing Shen (the bright star deity), also known as Lingxing, whose celestial image appears in the sky. An old explanation says: "Lingxing is the Mars star," or alternatively, it refers to the Longxing (Dragon Star). Fire is associated with heavenly fields. Zhushu, the son of Lishan Shi, and Houji were able to cultivate all kinds of grains for the benefit of the world; therefore, these three deities are worshipped in order to honor their contributions. The "Book of Han" records that in the fifth year of Emperor Gaozu's reign, the worship of Lingguan and Houtu was first established, with their altars located at the Ren position.
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社神蓋共工氏之子句龍也，能平水土，帝顓頊之世舉以為土正，天下賴其功，堯祠以為社。凡樹社者，欲令萬民加肅敬也，各以其野所宜之木以名其社及其野，位在未地。稷神、蓋厲山氏之子柱也，柱能殖百穀，帝顓頊之世舉以為田正，天下賴其功。周棄亦播殖百穀，以稷五穀之長也，因以稷名其神也。社、稷二神功同，故同堂別壇，俱在未位，土地廣博，不可徧覆，故封社稷。露之者，必受霜露以達天地之氣，樹之者，尊而表之，使人望見則加畏敬也。 |
| | The deity of the earth god (she shen) is said to be Goulong, the son of Gonggong Shi. He was able to regulate water and soil; during the reign of Emperor Zhuanxu, he was appointed as the official in charge of earth matters. The world relied on his achievements, so Yao honored him by establishing a temple for worship at She. Whenever an earth god (she) was established, it was intended to encourage the people to show reverence and seriousness. Each she was named after a tree native to its region; accordingly, both the temple and the surrounding area were given names based on these trees, with their positions located in the Wei direction. The god of grain (Ji Shen) is said to be Zhu, the son of Lishanshi. Zhu was able to cultivate various grains; during Emperor Zhuanxu's reign, he was appointed as head of agricultural affairs, and all under heaven relied on his contributions. Zhou Qi also cultivated various grains; since Ji was the leader among the five grains, the deity was thus named after it. The deities of She and Ji shared the same function, so they were worshipped in the same hall but on separate altars. Both were located at the Wei position. Since the land was vast and could not be fully covered by a single temple, the gods of She and Ji were enshrined to represent it. The act of "lu zhi" (exposing to dew and frost) meant that the deity must be exposed to dew and frost in order to connect with the energies of heaven and earth. The planting of trees was a sign of respect and reverence, intended to make people look upon them with awe and veneration.
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先農神，先農者蓋神農之神，神農作耒耜，教民耕農，至少昊之世，置九農之官如左。 |
| | The deity of Xian Nong (the first farmer) is believed to be the spirit of Shennong. Shennong invented farming tools such as the plow and hoe, and taught people how to farm. By the time of Emperor Shaohao's reign, nine official agricultural positions were established, arranged as follows:
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春扈氏農正，趣民耕種，夏扈氏農正、趣民芸除，秋扈氏農正、趣民收斂，冬扈氏農正、趣民蓋藏，棘扈氏農正、常謂茅氏，一曰掌人百果。行扈氏農正、晝為民驅鳥，宵扈氏農正、夜為民驅獸。桑扈氏農正、趣民養蠶，老扈氏農正、趣民收麥。 |
| | Chunhu Shi, the head of agriculture in spring, urged people to plow and plant. Xiahu Shi, the agricultural official in summer, encouraged weeding and cultivation. Qiuhu Shi, the autumn agricultural officer, promoted harvesting. Donghu Shi, the winter agricultural official, directed the storage of crops. Jihu Shi, another agricultural official, was also known as Mao Shi; alternatively, he oversaw a hundred kinds of fruits. Xinghu Shi, the agricultural officer in charge of movement, drove away birds for the people during the day. Xiaohu Shi, the night-time agricultural official, protected crops by driving off wild animals at night. Sanghu Shi, the silk farming officer, encouraged people to raise silkworms. Laohu Shi, another agricultural official, urged the harvest of wheat.
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疫神：帝顓頊有三子，生而亡去為鬼，其一者居江水，是為瘟鬼；其一者居若水，是為魍魎；其一者居人宮室樞隅處，善驚小兒。于是命方相氏黃金四目，蒙以熊皮，玄衣朱裳，執戈揚楯，常以歲竟十二月從百隸及童兒，而時儺以索宮中，敺疫鬼也。桃弧棘矢土鼓鼓，旦射之以赤丸，五穀播灑之以除疫殃，已而立桃人葦索，儋牙虎神荼、鬱壘以執之，儋牙虎神荼、鬱壘二神海中有度朔之山，上有桃木蟠屈三千里卑枝，東北有鬼門，萬鬼所出入也。神荼與鬱壘二神居其門，主閱領諸鬼，其惡害之鬼，執以葦索食虎，故十二月歲竟，常以先臘之夜逐除之也，乃畫荼壘并懸葦索于門戶以禦凶也。 |
| | The deity of plague: Emperor Zhuanxu had three sons, who died at birth and became ghosts. One of them resided in the Jiang River, becoming a "Wen Gui" (plague ghost); another resided by Ruoshui, and became known as Wangling; the third one dwelled in the hinges or corners of human dwellings, where it was adept at frightening children. Therefore, the emperor ordered Fangxiang Shi to wear a golden mask with four eyes and cover it with bear skin. He was dressed in black robes and red trousers, holding a halberd and raising a shield. Every year on the twelfth month's final day, he led one hundred attendants and children to perform ritual dances within the palace, chasing away plague ghosts. They used willow bows, thorn-tipped arrows, and clay drums to beat the drums. At dawn, they shot red pellets at the plague ghosts while scattering five grains to eliminate plagues. Afterward, they erected a peach figure with reed ropes and invoked the deities Shentu and Yulei to capture them. The two deities, Shentu and Yulei, were said to reside on Mount Duoshuo in the sea, where there was a twisted peach tree stretching three thousand li across. To the northeast of this mountain stood the Ghost Gate, through which all ten thousand ghosts entered and exited. The two deities, Shentu (Shen Sha) and Yulei (Yu Lei), resided at the gate to oversee all ghosts. Any harmful or malevolent spirits were bound with reed ropes and devoured by tigers. Therefore, on the last day of the twelfth lunar month, before the new year began, people would drive away these evil spirits. To ward off misfortune, images of Shentu and Yulei along with reed ropes were hung at doorways as a protective measure.
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四代稱臘之別名：夏曰嘉平，殷曰清祀，周曰大蜡，漢曰臘。 |
| | The four dynasties had different names for the "Laba" (Festival of Laba): in the Xia dynasty, it was called Jiaping; in the Yin dynasty, Qingsi; in the Zhou dynasty, Dazha; and in the Han dynasty, La.
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五帝臘祖之別名：青帝以未臘卯祖，赤帝以戍臘午祖，白帝以丑臘卯祖，黑帝以辰臘子祖，黃帝以辰臘未祖。 |
| | The five emperors had different names for their "Laba" (Festival of Laba) and ancestral rites: the Green Emperor used Wei La with Mao Zu; the Red Emperor used Shu La with Wu Zu; the White Emperor used Chou La with Mao Zu; the Black Emperor used Chen La with Zi Zu; and the Yellow Emperor used Chen La with Wei Zu.
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天子大蜡八神之別名：蜡之言索也，祭日索此八神而祭之也。大同小異，為位相對向，祝曰，土反其宅，水歸其壑，昆蟲毋作，豐年若上，歲取千百。 |
| | The eight deities honored in the emperor's grand Dazha ceremony had different names: "Zha" meant to seek or solicit, and on the day of sacrifice, these eight gods were sought out and worshipped. Though there were minor differences, their positions faced each other in a corresponding manner. The shaman prayed: "May the earth return to its place; may water flow back into its ravines; may insects not multiply; may we have an abundant harvest as above, and reap thousands or hundredsfold every year."
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先嗇、司嗇、農、郵表畷、貓虎、坊、水庸、昆蟲。 |
| | The eight gods were: Xiansai, Sisai, Nong, Youbiaofu, Mao Hu, Fang, Shuiyong, and Kunzhong.
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五祀之別名：法施于民則祀，以死勤事則祀，以勞定國則祀，能禦大災則祀，能扞大患則祀。 |
| | The five different names for the Five Sires (Wusi) were: those whose laws benefited the people would be worshipped; those who died serving their duties would be honored; those who worked hard to stabilize the nation would be venerated; those capable of preventing great disasters would be revered; and those able to defend against major calamities would also be enshrined.
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六號之別名：神號、尊其名更為美稱，若曰皇天上帝也。鬼號、若曰皇祖伯某，祇號若曰后土地祇也。牲號、牛曰一元大武，羊曰柔毛之屬也。齊號、黍曰薌合，梁曰香萁之屬也。幣號、玉曰嘉玉，幣曰量幣之屬也。 |
| | The six different names for divine titles: "Shen Hao" (divine title), which elevated the name to a more beautiful designation, such as calling it Huangtian Shangdi. The term "Gui Hao" (ghost title) referred to names like "Huangzu Bo Mou." The term "Zhi Hao," for example, was used as "Hou Tu Di Zhi," meaning the earth deity of a particular region. The term "Sheng Hao" (sacrificial title) referred to animals used in sacrifice: for example, an ox was called "Yiyuan Dawu," and a sheep belonged to the category of "Roumao." The term "Qi Hao" (grain title) referred to specific names for grains: millet was called Xianghe, and wheat belonged to the category of Xiangqi. The term "Bi Hao" (offering title) referred to offerings such as jade, which was called Jia Yu, and other valuables like Bi, categorized under Liangbi.
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凡祭宗廟禮牲之別名：牛曰一元大武，豕曰剛鬣，豚曰腯肥，羊曰柔毛，雞曰翰音，犬曰羹獻，雉曰疏趾，兔曰明視。 |
| | The various names for sacrificial animals used in ancestral temple rituals were as follows: an ox was called Yiyuan Dawu; a pig, Ganglie; a young pig, Tu, was called Tufei; a sheep, Roumao; a chicken, Hanyin; a dog, Gengxian; a pheasant, Shuzhi; and a rabbit, Mingshi.
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凡祭號牲物異于人者，所以尊鬼神也。脯曰尹祭，槀魚曰商祭，鮮魚曰脡祭。水曰清滌，酒曰清酌，黍曰薌合，梁曰香萁，稻曰嘉疏，鹽曰鹹鹺，玉曰嘉玉，幣曰量幣。 |
| | All the special names given to sacrificial animals in rituals differ from those used for humans, as they are meant to show respect and reverence toward ghosts and deities. Dried meat was called Yinsi; dried fish, Shangji; and fresh fish, Shenji. Water was called Qingdi; wine, Qingzhuo; millet, Xianghe; wheat, Xiangqi; rice, Jiasu; salt, Xianku; jade, Jiayu; and offerings of cloth or money were termed Liangbi.
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太祝掌六祝之辭：順祝、願豐年也，年祝、求永真也，告祝、祈福祥也，化祝、弭災兵也，瑞祝、逆時雨、寧風旱也，策祝、遠罪病也。 |
| | The Grand Shang (Grand Priest) was in charge of the six types of blessings: "Shunzhu" (blessing for harmony), wishing for a bountiful harvest; "Nianzhu" (year blessing), seeking eternal prosperity; "Gaozhu" (announcement blessing), praying for good fortune and auspicious signs; "Huazhu" (transformation blessing), to eliminate disasters and warfare; "Ruizhu" (auspicious blessing), requesting timely rain, peace from wind and drought; and "Cezhu" (strategy blessing), warding off crimes and diseases.
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宗廟所歌詩之別名：《清廟》、一章八句，洛邑既成，諸侯朝見宗祀文王之所歌也。《維天之命》、一章八句，告太平于文王之所歌也。《維清》、一章五句，奏象武之所歌也。《烈文》、一章十三句，成王即政，諸侯助祭之所歌也。《天作》、一章七句，祝先王公之所歌也。《昊天有成命》、一章七句，郊祀天地之所歌也。《我將》、一章十句，祀文王于明堂之所歌也。《時邁》、一章十五句，巡守告祭柴望之所歌也。《執競》、一章十四句，祀武王之所歌也。《思文》、一章八句，祀后稷配天之所歌也。《臣工》、一章十句，諸侯助祭遣之于廟之所歌也。《噫嘻》、一章八句，春夏祈穀于上帝之所歌也。《振鷺》、一章八句，二王之後來助祭之所歌也。《豐年》、一章七句，烝嘗秋冬之所歌也。《有瞽》、一章十三句，始作樂合諸樂而奏之所歌也。《潛》、一章六句，季冬薦魚、春獻鮪之所歌也。《雍》、一章十六句，禘太祖之所歌也。《載見》、一章十四句，諸侯始見于武王廟之所歌也。《有客》、一章十三句，微子來見祖廟之所歌也。《武》、一章七句，奏大武周武所定一代之樂之所歌也。《閔予小子》、一章十一句，成王除武王之喪，將始即政，朝于廟之所歌也。《訪落》、一章十二句，成王謀政于廟之所歌也。《敬之》、一章十二句，群臣進戒嗣王之所歌也。《小毖》、一章八句，嗣王求忠臣助己之所歌也。《載芟》、一章三十一句，春耤田祈社稷之所歌也。《良耜》、一章二十三句，秋報社稷之所歌也。《絲衣》、一章九句，繹賓尸之所歌也。《酌》、一章九句，告成大武，言能酌先祖之道以養天下之所歌也。《桓》、一章九句，師祭講武類禡之所歌也。《賚》、一章六句，大封于廟、賜有德之所歌也。《般》、一章七句，巡狩祀四嶽、河海之所歌也。右詩三十一章，皆天子之禮樂也。 |
| | The different names for poems sung in ancestral temple rituals: "Qingmiao," consisting of one chapter with eight lines, was the song performed when feudal lords paid homage and honored King Wen at Luoyi after its completion. "Weitian Zhiming," one chapter of eight lines, was the song sung to announce peace and prosperity in tribute to King Wen. " Weiqing," consisting of one chapter with five lines, was the song performed during the "Zouxiangwu" ceremony. "Liewen," one chapter with thirteen lines, was sung when King Cheng assumed power and feudal lords assisted in the sacrificial rites. "Tianzuo," consisting of one chapter with seven lines, was a song sung to bless the ancestors and former kings. "Haotian You Chengming," consisting of one chapter with seven verses, was a song performed during the sacrificial rites to heaven and earth in the suburbs. "Wojiang," consisting of one chapter with ten lines, was a song performed at the Mingtang (Hall of Illumination) to honor King Wen. "Shimai," consisting of one chapter with fifteen lines, was the song sung during imperial tours and sacrificial rites at altars for offerings. "Zhijing," consisting of one chapter with fourteen lines, was a hymn sung during the sacrifices to King Wu. "Sifen," consisting of one chapter and eight lines, was a song chanted during the sacrifice to Houji (the god of agriculture) who was honored as being in harmony with heaven. "Chengong," consisting of one chapter and ten lines, was the song chanted by feudal lords when they assisted in temple sacrifices and departed from the temple. "Yixi," consisting of one chapter with eight verses, was a hymn chanted during spring and summer prayers for grain offerings to Shangdi (the Supreme Deity). "Zhenlu," consisting of one chapter with eight sentences, was the song sung by descendants of two former kings who came to assist in the sacrificial rites. "Fengnian," consisting of one chapter with seven sentences, was a song sung during winter and autumn sacrifices (Zheng Chang). "Yougu," consisting of one chapter with thirteen sentences, was a song performed when various musical instruments were first assembled and played together. "Qian," consisting of one chapter with six lines, was a song sung when fish were offered in the last month of winter and tuna were presented in spring. "Yong," consisting of one chapter with sixteen lines, was a song sung at the ancestral rites for the Taizu (the great ancestor). "Zaijian," consisting of one chapter with fourteen sentences, was a song sung by feudal lords when they first paid homage at the temple of King Wu. "Youke," consisting of one chapter with thirteen lines, was a song sung in the ancestral temple when Wei Zi came to pay homage. "Wu," consisting of one chapter with seven lines (verses), was a song performed in the grand musical composition "Da Wu" established by King Wu of Zhou to represent the music of his dynasty. "Min Yu Xiaizi," consisting of one chapter with eleven lines, was a song sung by King Cheng when he mourned the death of King Wu and prepared to assume power, during his visit to the ancestral temple. "Fangluo," consisting of one chapter with twelve lines, was a song sung as King Cheng sought guidance on governance at the ancestral temple. "Jingzhi," consisting of one chapter with twelve sentences, was a song sung by ministers as they offered warnings and advice to the successor king. "Xiaobi," consisting of one chapter with eight lines (verses), was sung by a new king seeking loyal ministers to assist him. "Zaisan," consisting of one chapter with thirty-one lines, was the song sung in spring during the sacred plowing ceremony and prayers for the gods of land (She) and grain (Ji). "Liangsi," consisting of one chapter with twenty-three lines, was a song sung during autumn to offer thanks and sacrifices to the gods of land (She)and grain (Ji). "Siyi," consisting of one chapter with nine lines, was a song sung for the ritual of "Yi Binshi," in which an honored ancestor's spirit was symbolically hosted by a living representative. "Zhuo," consisting of one chapter with nine sentences, was sung to announce the completion of "Da Wu" (a grand martial music), expressing that it could draw upon the ways of ancestors to nurture all under heaven. "Huan," consisting of one chapter with nine verses, was a song sung during military rituals and drills for reviewing warfare (Leima). "Lai," consisting of one chapter with six sentences, was a song sung on the occasion of grand enfeoffments at the temple and granting rewards to virtuous individuals. "Pan," consisting of one chapter with seven lines(verses), was the song sung during an imperial tour and sacrifices to the Four Peaks, rivers, and seas. The thirty-one poems above were all part of the ritual music of the Son of Heaven (emperor).
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五等爵之別名：三公者，天子之相；相，助也，助理天下，其地方百里。侯者，候也，逆順也，其地方百里。伯者，白也，明白于德，其地方七十里。子者，滋也，奉天王之恩德，其地方五十里。男者，任也，立功業以化民，其地方五十里。 |
| | The five ranks of nobility: The Three Dukes, who served as the emperor's prime ministers; "Xiang," meaning assistant, assisted in governing the empire and was granted a fief of one hundred li. The rank of "Hou" (marquis) meant to observe or await, signifying the duty to discern loyalty and treachery; it was also granted a fief of one hundred square li. The rank of "Bo" (viscount) meant clarity, signifying those who clearly understood virtue; it was granted a fief covering seventy square li. The rank of "Zi" (earl) meant to nurture, indicating those who honored and upheld the emperor's grace and virtue; it was granted a territory of fifty square li. The rank of "Nan" (baron) meant to shoulder responsibility, signifying those who established achievements and transformed the people; it was granted a domain of fifty square li.
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守者，秦置也。秦兼天下，置三川守，伊、河、洛也。漢改曰河南守，武帝會曰太守，世祖都河陽，改曰正。 |
| | "The position of 'Shou' (governor) was first established in the Qin dynasty." When the Qin unified all under heaven, they appointed a "Shou" for Sanchuan (the three rivers), namely Yi, He, and Luo. The Han dynasty changed the title to "Henan Shou." Emperor Wu later renamed it "Taishou." When Emperor Shizu established his capital at Heyang, he changed it again to "Zheng."
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諸侯大小之差：諸侯王、皇子封為王者稱曰諸侯王。徹侯、群臣異姓有功封者稱曰徹侯。避武帝諱改曰通侯，或曰列侯也。朝侯、諸侯有功德者，天子特命為朝侯，位次諸卿。 |
| | The hierarchy of feudal lords: a "Zhu Hou Wang" (feudal king) was a prince who had been granted the title of king. Chehou were non-royal subjects or officials who, for their meritorious service, were enfeoffed with this rank and called Chehou. To avoid the taboo of Emperor Wu's name, it was changed to Tonghou; it was also sometimes referred to as Liehou. Chaohou: feudal lords who had virtue and achievements were specially appointed by the emperor as Chaohou, ranking just below the ministers.
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王者耕耤田之別名：天子三推，三公五推，卿諸侯九推。 |
| | The different names for the Son of Heaven's plowing ceremony: The emperor performed three plows, the Three Dukes five plows, and ministers and feudal lords nine plows.
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三代學校之別名：夏曰校，殷曰序，周曰庠，天子曰辟雍，謂流水四面如璧，以節觀者，諸侯曰頖宮，頖、言半也，義亦如上。 |
| | The different names for schools in the three dynasties: In the Xia dynasty, they were called Xiao; in the Yin (Shang) dynasty, Xu; and in the Zhou dynasty, Xiang. For the Son of Heaven, it was known as Biyong, meaning a circular hall with water flowing around all four sides like a jade disc, symbolizing harmony for observers to follow. For feudal lords, it was called Pan Gong. "Pan" meant half, and its significance was similar to that above.
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五帝三代樂之別名：黃帝曰《雲門》，顓頊曰《六莖》，帝嚳曰《五英》，堯曰《咸池》，舜曰《大韶》，一曰《大招》，夏曰《大夏》，殷曰《大濩》，周曰《大武》。天子八佾，八八六十四人，八者，象八風，所以風化天下也。公之樂《六佾》，象六律也。侯之樂《四佾》，象四時也。 |
| | The different names of music in the Five Emperors and Three Dynasties: Huangdi's was called "Yunmen"; Zhuanxu, "Liu Jing"; Emperor Ku, "Wuying"; Yao, "Xianti"; Shun, "Da Zhao," also known as "Dazhao"; Xia dynasty, "Da Xia"; Yin (Shang) dynasty; "Da Huo"; and Zhou dynasty, "Da Wu." The Son of Heaven performed the Ba Yi dance, with eight rows of eight people each, totaling sixty-four dancers. The number "eight" symbolized the Eight Winds and was used to inspire moral influence across all under heaven. The music for a duke (gong) was called "Liu Yi," symbolizing the Six Laws of pitch. The music for a marquis (hou) was known as "Si Yi," representing the four seasons.
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朝士卿朝之法：左九棘、孤卿大夫位也，群臣在其後。右九棘、公侯伯子男位也，群吏在其後。三槐、三公之位也，州長眾庶在其後。 |
| | The court etiquette for officials attending the Son of Heaven: on the left were nine thorn trees, marking the positions of "Gu," Qing, and Da Fu (high-ranking ministers), with other officials standing behind them. On the right were nine thorn trees as well, marking the positions of dukes, marquises, viscounts, earls, and barons, with lower-ranking officials standing behind them. The three kempferia trees marked the positions of the Three Dukes; behind them stood state governors and common people.
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四代獄之別名：唐虞曰士官，《史記》曰皋陶為理，《尚書》曰皋陶作士，夏曰均臺，周曰囹圄，漢曰獄。 |
| | The different names for prisons in the four dynasties: In the Tang and Yu periods, it was called "Shiguan." According to the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji), Gao Yao served as a judge. The Book of Documents (Shangshu) records that Gao Yao established the office of Shiguan. In the Xia dynasty, prisons were known as Jun Tai; in the Zhou dynasty as Lingyu; and in the Han dynasty as Yu.
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四夷樂之別名：王者必作四夷之樂以定天下之歡心，祭神明和而歌之，以管樂為之聲。東方曰韎，南方曰任，西方曰侏離，北方曰禁。 |
| | The different names for music of the Four Yi (barbarian) peoples: A Son of Heaven must compose or incorporate the music of these four groups to secure harmony and joy among all under heaven. During rituals, this music was sung in a harmonious manner, accompanied by bamboo instruments. The peoples of the East were called Ma; those of the South, Ren; those of the West, Zhu Li; and those of the North, Jin.
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《易》曰：「帝出乎震。」震者，木也，言虙犧氏始以木德王天下也。木生火，故虙犧氏歾，神農氏以火德繼之。火生土，故神農氏歾，黃帝以土德繼之。土生金，故黃帝歾，少昊氏以金德繼之。金生水，故少昊氏歾，顓頊氏以水德繼之。水生木，故顓頊氏歾，帝嚳氏以木德繼之。木生火，故帝嚳氏歾，帝堯氏以火德繼之。火生土，故帝舜氏以土德繼之。土生金，故夏禹氏以金德繼之。金生水，故殷湯氏以水德繼之。水生木，故周武以木德繼之。木生火，故高祖以火德繼之。 |
| | The Book of Changes says: "The emperor emerges from Zhen." Zhen represents wood; this indicates that Fu Xi Shi first ruled over the world with the virtue of wood. Wood gives rise to fire, so after the death of Fu Xi Shi, Shennong Shi succeeded him with the virtue of fire. Fire gives rise to earth; therefore, after the death of Shennong Shi, Huangdi succeeded him with the virtue of earth. Earth gives rise to metal; thus, after the death of Huangdi, Shaohao Shi succeeded him with the virtue of metal. Metal gives rise to water; therefore, after the death of Shaohao Shi, Zhuanxu Shi succeeded him with the virtue of water. Water gives rise to wood; thus, after the death of Zhuanxu Shi, Dieku Shi succeeded him with the virtue of wood. Wood gives rise to fire; therefore, after the death of Dieku Shi, Emperor Yao succeeded him with the virtue of fire. (Translation note: "帝堯氏" is translated as "Emperor Yao," a well-known historical figure in Chinese history.) Fire gives rise to earth, so Emperor Shun succeeded him with the virtue of earth. (Translation note: The subject "帝舜氏" is translated as "Emperor Shun," a well-known historical figure.) Earth gives rise to metal, so Xia Yu Shi succeeded with the virtue of metal. (Translation note: "夏禹氏" is translated as "Xia Yu Shi," referring to Yu the Great of the Xia dynasty.) Metal gives rise to water, so Yin Tang Shi succeeded with the virtue of water. (Translation note: "殷湯氏" refers to King Tang of the Shang dynasty and is translated as "Yin Tang Shi.") Water gives rise to wood, so Zhou Wu succeeded with the virtue of wood. (Translation note: "周武" refers to King Wu of Zhou and is translated as "Zhou Wu.") Wood gives rise to fire, so Gaozu succeeded with the virtue of fire. (Translation note: "高祖" refers to Emperor Gaozu of Han and is translated as "Gaozu.")
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虙犧為太昊氏，炎帝為神農氏，黃帝為軒轅氏，少昊為金天氏，顓頊為高陽氏，帝嚳為高辛氏，帝堯為陶唐氏，帝舜為有虞氏，夏禹為夏后氏，湯為殷商氏，武王為周，高祖為漢。高帝、惠帝、呂后攝政、文帝、景帝、武帝、昭帝、宣帝、元帝、成帝、哀帝、平帝、王莽、聖公、光武、明帝、章帝、和帝、殤帝、安帝、順帝、沖帝、質帝、桓帝、靈帝，從高帝至桓帝，三百八十六年，除王莽、劉聖公，三百六十六年，從高祖乙未至今壬子歲，四百一十年，呂后、王莽不入數，高帝以甲午歲即位，以乙未為元。 |
| | Fu Xi was Taihao Shi; Yandi was Shennong Shi; Huangdi was Xuanyuan Shi; Shaohao was Jitian Shi; Zhuanxu was Gaoyang Shi; Dieku was Gaoxin Shi; Emperor Yao was Taotang Shi; Emperor Shun was Youyu Shi; Xia Yu was Xiahou Shi; Tang was Yinshang Shi; King Wu was Zhou; and Gaozu was Han. Emperor Gao, Emperor Hui, Empress Dowager Lü regent, Emperor Wen, Emperor Jing, Emperor Wu, Emperor Zhao, Emperor Xuan, Emperor Yuan, Emperor Cheng, Emperor Ai, Emperor Ping, Wang Mang, Shenggong, Guangwu, Emperor Ming, Emperor Zhang, Emperor He, Emperor 殇 (Shang), Emperor An, Emperor Shun, Emperor Chong, Emperor Zhi, and Emperor Huan. From Emperor Gao to Emperor Huan, there were 386 years; excluding Wang Mang and Liu Shenggong, it was 366 years. From the year Gaozu took the throne in Yiwei to this year Renzi, it is 410 years. Empress Dowager Lü and Wang Mang are not counted among them. Emperor Gao ascended the throne in the Jiawu year and began his reign with the Yiw ei year as the first year of his rule.
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帝嫡妃曰皇后，帝母曰皇太后，帝祖母曰太皇太后，其眾號皆如帝之稱。秦漢以來，少帝即位，后代而攝政，稱皇太后，詔不言制。漢興，惠帝崩，少帝弘立，太后攝政。哀帝崩，平帝幼，孝元王皇后以太皇太后攝政。和帝崩，殤帝崩，安帝幼，和憙鄧皇后攝政。孝順崩，沖帝、質帝、桓帝皆幼，順烈梁后攝政。桓帝崩，今上即位，桓思竇后攝政。后攝政則后臨前殿朝群臣，后東面，少帝西面，群臣奏事上書皆為兩通，一詣太后，一詣少帝，一世、二世、三世、四世、五世、六世、七世、八世、九世、十世、十一世、十二世、十三世、十四世、十五世、十六世。 |
| | The empress, the emperor's principal wife, is called Huanghou; the emperor's mother is called Huangtaihou; and the emperor's grandmother is called Taihuangtaihou. Their titles are all equal to those of the emperor. Since the Qin and Han dynasties, when a young emperor ascended the throne, his mother would act as regent and be titled Huangtaihou, but edicts did not refer to her as issuing decrees. When the Han dynasty was established, after Emperor Hui died, young emperor Hong ascended the throne and Empress Dowager acted as regent. After Emperor Ai's death, Emperor Ping was still a child, so Xiao Yuan Wang Huanghou, as Taihuangtaihou, acted as regent. After Emperor He's death and the death of Emperor Shang, Emperor An was still young, so Hexi Deng Huanghou acted as regent. After Emperor Shun's death, Emperors Chong, Zhi, and Huan were all young, so Shunlie Liang Hou acted as regent. After Emperor Huan's death, the current emperor ascended the throne and Huansi Douhou acted as regent. When a regent empress dowager assumed power, she would hold court in the front hall and receive officials. The empress dowager faced east while the young emperor faced west. Officials submitted reports and memorials in duplicate: one to the 太后 (empress dowager) and one to the young emperor. This system lasted for sixteen generations: first generation, second generation, third generation, fourth generation, fifth generation, sixth generation, seventh generation, eighth generation, ninth generation, tenth generation, eleventh generation, twelfth generation, thirteenth generation, fourteenth generation, fifteenth generation, and sixteenth generation.
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文帝、弟雖在三，禮、兄弟不相為後，文帝即高祖子，于惠帝、兄弟也，故不為惠帝後而為弟二，宣帝弟次昭帝，史皇孫之子，于昭帝為兄，孫以係祖，不得上與父齊，故為七世。光武雖在十二，于父子之次，于成帝為兄弟，為于哀帝為諸父，于平帝為父祖，皆不可為之後。上至元帝于光武為父，故上繼元帝而為九世。故《河圖》曰赤，九世會昌，謂光武也。十世以光，謂孝明也；十一以興，謂孝章也。成雖在九，哀雖在十，平雖在十一，不稱次。 |
| | Emperor Wen and his brothers, though three in number, did not succeed each other according to the rites; siblings do not inherit from one another. Emperor Wen was a son of Gaozu and thus a brother to Emperor Hui. Therefore, he did not succeed Emperor Hui but became the second emperor. Emperor Xuan was the younger brother of Emperor Zhao. Emperor Xuan was a grandson of Emperor Wu through his father, who was the great-grandson of Emperor Wu. As a grandson, he could not be ranked equal to his grandfather; thus, he is considered the seventh generation. Although Guangwu was in the twelfth generation, according to the order of father and son, he was a brother to Emperor Cheng; thus, a cousin to Emperor Ai, and an uncle or grandfather to Emperor Ping. Therefore, none of them could succeed him. Tracing back from Guangwu to Emperor Yuan, Guangwu was the son of Emperor Yuan; therefore, he succeeded Emperor Yuan and is considered the ninth generation. Therefore, The He Tu says: "Red, nine generations will flourish," referring to Guangwu. The tenth generation shines brightly, referring to Emperor Ming. The eleventh generation rises again, referring to Emperor Zhang. Emperor Cheng was in the ninth generation; Emperor Ai in the tenth; and Emperor Ping in the eleventh, but none of them were counted.
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宗廟之制：古學以為人君之居，前有朝，後有寢，終則前制廟以象朝，後制寢以象寢，廟以藏主，列昭穆；寢有衣冠几杖，象生之具，總謂之宮。《月令》曰：「先薦寢廟。」《詩》云：「公侯之宮。」《頌》曰：「寢廟奕奕。」言相連也，是皆其文也。古不墓祭，至秦始皇出寢起居于墓側，漢因而不改，故今陵上稱寢殿，有起居衣冠象生之備，皆古寢之意也。居西都時，高帝以下，每帝各別立廟，月備法駕遊衣冠，又未定迭毀之禮。元帝時，丞相匡衡、御史大夫貢禹乃以經義處正，罷遊衣冠，毀先帝親盡之廟。高帝為太祖，孝文為太宗，孝武為世宗，孝宣為中宗，祖宗廟皆世世奉祠，其餘惠景以下皆毀，五年而稱殷祭，猶古之禘祫也，殷祭則及諸毀廟，非殷祭則祖宗而已。光武中興，都洛陽，乃合高祖以下至平帝為一廟，藏十一帝主于其中，元帝于光武為禰，故雖非宗而不毀也。後嗣遵承，遂常奉祀光武舉天下以再受命復漢祚，更起廟稱世祖。孝明臨崩遺詔遵儉毋起寢廟，藏主于世祖廟。孝章不敢違，是後遵承藏主于世祖廟，皆如孝明之禮，而園陵皆自起寢廟。孝明曰顯宗，孝章曰肅宗，是後踵前。孝和曰穆宗，孝安曰恭宗，孝順曰敬宗，孝桓曰威宗，唯殤、沖、質三少帝，皆以未踰年而崩，不列于宗廟。四時就陵上祭寢而已。今洛陽諸陵，皆以晦望、二十四氣伏、社臘及四時日上飯。大官送用，園令食監典省其親陵所宮人，隨鼓漏，理被枕，具盥水，陳嚴具。天子以正月五日畢供後上原陵，以次周徧，公卿百官皆從，四姓小侯諸侯家婦，凡與先帝先后有瓜葛者，及諸侯王、大夫郡國計吏、匈奴朝者西國侍子皆會，尚書官屬，陛西除下先帝神座，後大夫計吏皆當軒下，占其郡穀價，四方災異，欲皆使先帝魂神具聞之，遂于親陵各賜計吏而遣之。正月上丁祠南郊，禮畢，次北郊明堂，高祖廟、世祖廟謂之五供。五供畢，以次上陵也。四時宗廟用牲十八太牢，皆有副倅。西廟五主：高帝、文帝、武帝、宣帝、元帝也。高帝為高祖，文帝為太宗，武帝為世宗，宣帝為中宗，其廟皆不毀。孝元功薄當毀，光武復天下，屬弟于元帝為子，以元帝為禰廟，故列于祖宗，後嗣因承，遂不毀也。 |
| | The system of ancestral temples: According to ancient scholarship, the residence of a ruler had a court in front and a sleeping chamber at the back. After death, a temple was built in front to symbolize the court, and a chamber behind it to symbolize the sleeping quarters. The temple housed the spirit tablets, arranged according to the order of Zhaomu (maternal and paternal generations). The chamber contained clothing, hats, stools, canes, and other items used in life, symbolizing the deceased's belongings. Together, they were referred to as a palace. The Yue Ling says: "Offer sacrifices first at the chamber and then at the temple." The Book of Songs says: "The palace of marquises and dukes." The Odes say: "The chamber and temple are grand and stately." They refer to the same place; these are all descriptions of it in literature. In ancient times, sacrifices were not made at tombs. It was only during the reign of Qin Shi Huang that a chamber for daily rituals and belongings was built beside the tomb; the Han dynasty followed this practice without change. Hence, today's mausoleums are called Qindian (chamber halls), where replicas of clothing, hats, and items used in life are placed—these all reflect the ancient concept of the sleeping chamber. When residing in the western capital, from Emperor Gao onward, each emperor had a separate temple built for him. Monthly ceremonies were held with full ritual processions to visit their clothing and hats; however, the rites of alternating destruction (removal) of temples had not yet been established. During the reign of Emperor Yuan, Chancellor Kuang Heng and Grand Censor Gong Yu cited classical principles to justify reforming the system. They abolished the practice of visiting clothing and hats with processions and destroyed temples for emperors whose descendants had died out. Emperor Gao was honored as Taizu, Emperor Wen as Taizong, Emperor Wu as Shizong, and Emperor Xuan as Zhongzong. The temples of these ancestral emperors were perpetually maintained with regular sacrifices. All others, from Emperor Hui and Emperor Jing onward, had their temples destroyed. Every five years, a grand sacrifice known as Yinji was held, similar to the ancient rites of di and xia. During Yinji, offerings extended to all destroyed temples; otherwise, only the ancestral emperors were honored. When Guangwu revived the dynasty, he established Luoyang as his capital and combined the temples of Gaozu down to Emperor Ping into one temple, housing the spirit tablets of eleven emperors within it. Since Emperor Yuan was a great-grandfather to Guangwu, although not an ancestor by lineage, his temple was preserved and not destroyed. Later descendants followed this tradition, continuing to worship Guangwu as the one who had restored the Han dynasty by receiving a new mandate from heaven. A new temple was built for him and he was honored with the title Shizu (Progenitor Emperor). Emperor Ming, on his deathbed, issued a final decree urging frugality and forbidding the construction of new chamber temples. His spirit tablet was to be enshrined in the temple of Shizu (the Temple of Emperor Guangwu). Emperor Zhang dared not disobey and, from then on, followed the practice of enshrining spirit tablets in Shizu's temple according to Emperor Ming's rites. However, each mausoleum still had its own chamber and temple built separately. Emperor Ming was posthumously honored as Xianzong, Emperor Zhang as Suzong; after this, the practice continued in succession. Emperor He was honored as Muzong, Emperor An as Gongzong, Emperor Shun as Jingzong, and Emperor Huan as Weizong. Only the three young emperors—Shang, Chong, and Zhi—who died before completing their first year on the throne were not enshrined in the ancestral temples. Sacrifices were made at the mausoleum's chamber only during the four seasons. Now, all the tombs in Luoyang are honored with daily offerings of food on the first and fifteenth days of each lunar month, as well as during the twenty-four solar terms, the day of Fushu (a traditional observance), She Day (the spring sacrifice to the soil god), La Day (winter solstice festival), and the four seasonal days. The Grand Officials of the Imperial Kitchen provided food, while the head of the tomb and the supervisor of meals oversaw the palace attendants at the emperor's mausoleum. They followed the sound of drums and water clocks to make preparations: arranging bedding and pillows, providing washing water, and setting out ritual items for offerings. On the fifth day of the first lunar month, the Son of Heaven completed his offerings at the Huyuling Mausoleum and proceeded in order to visit all other mausoleums. Grand officials and ministers followed him. The wives of minor marquises from four noble families, as well as those related by marriage or blood to previous emperors and their consorts; feudal kings,大夫 (ministers), local officials responsible for reporting statistics, Xiongnu envoys, and foreign tribute students all gathered. Officials under the Shangshu Office stood west of the steps before the ancestral spirit seats of former emperors. After that,大夫 and officials in charge of reports stood beneath the 轩 (a type of pavilion) to report on grain prices from their respective regions, unusual disasters, and other events, so that the spirits of previous emperors could be fully informed. Finally, at each mausoleum, these officials were individually granted gifts by the emperor before being dismissed. On the first Ding day of the first lunar month (the first "Ding" day), a sacrifice was held at the southern suburbs. After completing the ceremony, the Son of Heaven proceeded to the northern suburbs and the Mingtang Hall for further rites. The ancestral temples of Gaozu and Shizu were also honored; these five ceremonies together were known as the "Five Offerings." After completing the Five Offerings, the Son of Heaven visited the mausoleums in order. For the four seasonal ancestral temple sacrifices, eighteen grand sacrificial ceremonies (each with a full set of three animals: ox, sheep, and pig) were used, each accompanied by secondary offerings. The five ancestral tablets in the western temple are those of Emperor Gao, Emperor Wen, Emperor Wu, Emperor Xuan, and Emperor Yuan. Emperor Gao is honored as Taizu (Progenitor Ancestor), Emperor Wen as Taizong (Grand Ancestor), Emperor Wu as Shizong (Eternal Ancestor), and Emperor Xuan as Zhongzu (Central Ancestor). Their temples are all preserved and never destroyed. Emperor Yuan's contributions were considered insufficient and his temple should have been destroyed. However, Guangwu restored the empire; by making himself a grandson of Emperor Yuan through adoption, he elevated Emperor Yuan to the status of a great-grandfather (nai) and thus included him among the ancestral emperors. Later descendants followed this precedent, so his temple was preserved without destruction.
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東廟七主：光武、明帝、章帝、和帝、安帝、順帝、桓帝也。光武為世祖，明帝為顯宗，章帝為肅宗，和帝為穆宗，安帝為恭宗，順帝為敬宗，桓帝為威宗，廟皆不毀。少帝未踰年而崩，皆不入廟，以陵寢為廟者三：殤帝康陵、沖帝懷陵、質帝靜陵是也。追號為后者三：章帝宋貴人曰敬隱后，葬北陵，安帝祖母也。清河孝德皇后、安帝母也。章帝梁貴人曰恭懷后，葬西陵，和帝母也。安帝張貴人曰恭敏后，葬北陵，順帝母也。 |
| | The seven ancestral tablets in the eastern temple are those of Emperor Guangwu, Emperor Ming, Emperor Zhang , Emperor He, Emperor An, Emperor Shun and Emperor Huan. Emperor Guangwu is honored as Shizu (Eternal Ancestor); Emperor Ming as Xianzong; Emperor Zhang as Suzong ; Emperor He as Muzong; Emperor An as Gongzong; Emperor Shun as Jingzu; and Emperor Huan as Weizu. Their temples are all preserved without destruction. The young emperors who died before completing their first year in office were not enshrined among the ancestral tablets. Three mausoleums served as temples: the Kangling Mausoleum of Emperor Shang, the Huailing Mausoleum of Emperor Chong, and the Jingling Mausoleum of Empero Zhi. Three posthumous titles were bestowed as "Empress Dowager": Song Guiren of Emperor Zhang was honored as Jingyin Hou, buried in the northern mausoleum; she was the grandmother of Emperor An. Qinghe Xiaode Huanghou was the mother of Emperor An. Liang Guiren of Emperor Zhang, honored as Gonghuai Hou, was buried in the western mausoleum; she is the mother of Emperor He. Zhang Guiren of Emperor An, honored as Gongmin Hou, was buried in the northern mausoleu m; she is the mother of Empero Shun.
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兩廟十二主、三少帝、三后，故用十八太牢也。 |
| | With two temples housing twelve ancestral tablets, three young emperors, and three empresses dowagers, the sacrifice of eighteen grand offerings (each with a complete set of sacrificial animals) is used.
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漢家不言禘祫，五年而再殷祭，則西廟惠帝、景、昭皆別祠，成、哀、平三帝以非光武所後，藏主長安，故高廟四時祠于東廟，京兆尹侍祠衣冠車服，如太常祠行陵廟之禮，順帝母故云姓李，或姓張。高祖得天下，而父在，上尊號曰太上皇，不言帝，非天子也。孝宣繼孝昭帝，其父曰史皇孫，祖父曰衛太子，太子以罪廢，及皇孫皆死。宣帝但起園陵長承奉守，不敢加尊號于祖父也。光武繼孝元，亦不敢加尊號于父祖也。世祖父南頓君曰皇考，祖鉅鹿都尉曰皇祖，曾祖鬱林太守曰皇曾祖。高祖舂陵節侯曰皇高祖，起陵廟，置章陵以奉祠之而已。至殤帝崩，無子弟，安帝以和帝兄子從清河王子即尊號，依高帝尊父為太上皇之義，追號父清河王曰孝德皇。順帝崩，沖帝無子弟，立樂安王子，是為質帝。帝偪于順烈梁后父大將軍梁冀未得尊其父而崩。桓帝以蠡吾侯子即尊位，追尊父蠡吾先侯曰孝崇皇，母匡太夫人曰孝崇后，祖父河間孝王曰孝穆皇，祖母妃曰孝穆后。桓帝崩，無子，今上即位，追尊父解犢侯曰孝仁皇，母董夫人曰孝仁后，祖父河間敬王曰孝元皇，祖母夏妃曰孝元后。 |
| | The Han dynasty did not speak of the rites of di or xia, but held a grand sacrifice every five years. During this time, Emperor Hui of the western temple and Emperors Jing and Zhao were separately honored with sacrifices. The three emperors Cheng, Ai, and Ping, who were not direct ancestors of Guangwu, had their spirit tablets stored in Chang'an. Thus, the four seasonal sacrifices for Gaozu's temple were conducted at the eastern temple. The governor of Jingzhao You oversaw these ceremonies, wearing ceremonial robes and driving a ritual carriage as required by the Taichang Office when performing rites at ancestral temples and mausoleums. Emperor Shun's mother was originally surnamed Li or Zhang. When Gaozu gained the empire, his father was still alive; he honored him with the title Taishang Huang (Grand Emperor Emeritus), but did not call him an emperor, for he was not a Son of Heaven. Emperor Xuan succeeded Emperor Zhao; his father was Shi Huangsun, and his grandfather was Wei Taizi (the Crown Prince). The crown prince had been deposed for crimes, and both he and the great-grandson died. Emperor Xuan merely established a mausoleum with attendants to maintain it, but dared not bestow any honorific titles upon his grandfather. Guangwu succeeded Emperor Yuan and also did not dare to bestow honorific titles on his father or grandfather. Shizu's grandfather, Nandun Jun, was honored as Huangkao; his great-grandfather, Ju Lu Duwei, as Huangzu; and his great-great-grandfather, Yulin Taishou, as Huangcengzu. Gaozu's ancestor, Chongling Jiehou, was honored as Huangaizu; a mausoleum and temple were built for him at Zhangling to receive sacrifices. After Emperor Shang died without any brothers or sons, Emperor An ascended the throne as the nephew of Emperor He and a grandson of the Qinghe Prince. Following the precedent set by Gaozu in honoring his father as Taishang Huang, he posthumously bestowed the title Xiaode Huang on his father, the Qinghe Wang. After Emperor Shun died and Emperor Chong had no brothers or sons, a son of Le'an Wang was enthroned as Emperor Zhi. óst The emperor, pressured by Liang Ji, the father-in-law of Empress Dowager Shunlie and Grand General, did not have the opportunity to honor his own father before dying. Emperor Huan, as the son of Liwu Hou, ascended the throne. He posthumously honored his father, Liwu Xianhou, as Xiaochong Huang; his mother, Kuang Taifuren, as Xiaochong Hou; his grandfather, Hejian Xiaowang, as Xiaomu Huang; and his grandmother, Fei, as Xiaomu Hou. After Emperor Huan died without a son, the current emperor ascended to the throne. He posthumously bestowed on his father, Jiedu Hou, the title Xiaoren Huang; on his mother, Dong Furen, the title Xiaoren Hou; on his grandfather, Hejian Jingwang, the title Xiaoyuan Huang; and on his grandmother, Xia Fei, the title Xiaoyuan Hou.
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天子大社，以五色土為壇，皇子封為王者，受天子之社土以所封之方色，東方受青，南方受赤，他如其方色，苴以白茅授之，各以其所封方之色。歸國以立社，故謂之受茅土。漢興以皇子封為王者得茅土，其地功臣及鄉亭他姓公侯，各以其戶數租入為限，不受茅土，亦不立社也。 |
| | The Son of Heaven's great altar for the god of land was built with five-colored earth. When a prince was enfeoffed as a king, he received soil from this altar in the color corresponding to his fiefdom's direction: green for the east, red for the south, and so on according to each region's directional color. The soil was wrapped in white rush grass and presented to him, with the wrapping matching the color of his assigned direction. Upon returning to their fiefdoms, they established altars for land gods; thus it was called "receiving rush grass and soil." When the Han dynasty was founded, only princes enfeoffed as kings received rush grass and soil. For meritorious ministers and others of different surnames who were granted marquis or duke titles in counties or towns, their privileges were limited to the number of households and tax revenue from their fiefs; they did not receive rush grass and soil, nor were they allowed to establish altars for land gods.
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漢制：皇子封為王者，其實古諸侯也。周末諸侯或稱王，而漢天子自以皇帝為稱，故以王號加之，總名諸侯王子弟。封為侯者，謂之諸侯。群臣異姓有功封者，謂之徹侯。後避武帝諱改曰通侯。法律家皆曰列侯。功德優盛朝廷所異者，賜位特進，位在三公下。其次朝侯，位次九卿下，皆平冕文衣，侍祠郊廟，稱侍祠侯。其次下士，但侍祠無朝位。次小國侯，以肺腑宿衛親公主子孫奉墳墓，在京者亦隨時見會，謂之猥朝侯也。 |
| | The Han dynasty system: Princes enfeoffed as kings by the Son of Heaven were in fact ancient-style feudal lords (zhuhou). At the end of the Zhou dynasty, some feudal lords were called kings; however, in the Han dynasty, the Son of Heaven himself used the title "emperor," so he bestowed the rank of king upon them. This was a general term for the sons and brothers of feudal lords. Those enfeoffed as marquises were called feudal lords (zhuhou). (Translation note: "諸侯" is translated here as "feudal lords," a common interpretation in the context of Han dynasty political structure.) Ministers and subjects of different surnames granted titles for meritorious service were called Chehou. (Translation note: "徹侯" is translated as "Chehou," a title used in the Han dynasty.) Later, to avoid the taboo of Emperor Wu's name, it was changed to Tonghou. (Translation note: "通侯" is translated as "Tonghou," a revised title due to naming taboos.) Legal scholars referred to them all as Liehou. (Translation note: "列侯" is translated as "Liehou," another term for marquises in the Han legal system.) Those who had particularly outstanding virtue and merit, distinguished by the court, were granted the special title Tejin. Their rank was below that of the Three Excellencies (San Gong). Those ranked lower were known as Chao Hou, whose status was below the Nine Ministers. They all wore ceremonial caps and embroidered robes, served in sacrifices at the altars of heaven and ancestral temples, and were called Shici Hou (attendant sacrifice marquises). Those ranked even lower were merely junior officials who only served in sacrifices without any court attendance position. Next were the marquises of small fiefdoms, whose descendants and relatives of princesses maintained ancestral tombs and served as close attendants. Those residing in the capital could also appear at court meetings from time to time; they were called Wei Chao Hou (petty attending marquises).
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巡狩校獵還，公卿以下陳洛陽都亭前街上，乘輿到，公卿下拜，天子下車。公卿親識顏色，然後還宮。古語曰：「在車則下。」惟此時施行。 |
| | When the Son of Heaven returned from a tour and hunting expedition, officials at the level of Grand Chancellor and below would gather on the streets in front of Luoyang Du Ting. When the imperial procession arrived, these officials knelt to pay homage, and the Son of Heaven alighted from his carriage. The emperor personally observed their appearances before returning to the palace. An ancient saying states: "When a superior is in his carriage, one must descend from his own." This was the only time this practice was carried out.
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正月朝賀，三公奉璧上殿，向御座北面，太常贊曰：「皇帝為君興，三公伏，皇帝坐，乃進璧。」古語曰：「御坐則起。」此之謂也。舊儀三公以下月朝，後省，常以六月朔、十月朔旦朝，後又以盛暑省六月朝，故今獨以為正月、十月朔朝也。冬至陽氣始起，麋鹿解角，故寢兵鼓，身欲寧，志欲靜，不聽事，送迎五日，臘者，歲終大祭，縱吏民宴飲，非迎氣，故但送不迎。正月歲首，亦如臘儀。冬至陽氣起，君道長，故賀。夏至陰氣起，君道衰，故不賀。鼓以動眾，鐘以止眾。夜漏盡，鼓鳴則起。晝漏盡，鐘鳴則息也。 |
| | On the first day of January for court greetings, the Three Excellencies presented jade discs on the hall. Facing north toward the imperial throne, the Taichang official announced: "The Son of Heaven rises to honor his ministers; the Three Excellencies kneel down. When the emperor sits, they may present their jade discs." An ancient saying says: "When the ruler is seated, one must rise." This is what it refers to. According to the old ritual, officials of the Three Excellencies and below were required to attend court monthly. Later this was reduced, and they attended only on the first day of June and October. Subsequently, due to the intense summer heat, the June court session was also suspended; thus today, court attendance is held only on the first days of January and October. On the winter solstice, yang energy begins to rise; deer shed their antlers. Therefore, weapons and drums are put away, the body seeks rest, and the mind desires tranquility. No official business is conducted during this time. Officials and commoners may send or receive guests for five days. The La festival marks a grand year-end sacrifice, when officials and people were allowed to feast and drink freely. Since it was not an occasion for welcoming seasonal qi (vital energy), only sending off was observed, without receiving visitors. The first day of the lunar year, as the beginning of the new year, is also observed with a ceremony similar to that of La. On the winter solstice yang energy begins to rise and the ruler's authority grows; therefore, congratulations are offered. On the summer solstice yin energy begins to arise and the ruler's authority declines; thus, no congratulations are given. Drums were used to assemble the people, while bells were used to disperse them. When the night hourglass was emptied and the drum sounded, they would rise. When the daylight hourglass was emptied and the bell rang, they would rest.
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天子出，車駕次弟謂之鹵簿：有大駕、有小駕、有法駕。大駕、則公卿奉引大將軍參乘太僕御，屬車八十一乘，備千乘萬騎。在長安時，出祠天于甘泉備之，百官有其儀注，名曰甘泉鹵簿。中興以來希用之。先帝時，時備大駕上原陵，他不常用，唯遭大喪，乃施之法駕。公卿不在鹵簿中，唯河南尹執金吾洛陽令奉引侍中參乘奉車郎御屬車三十六乘，北郊明堂，則省諸副車。小駕、祠宗廟用之，每出，太僕奉駕上鹵簿于尚書，侍中、中常侍、侍御史、主者郎令史皆執注以督整諸軍車騎。春秋上陵令又省于小駕，直事尚書一人從令以下皆先行。 |
| | When the Son of Heaven went out, his procession was arranged in order and called "lubu": there were grand processions, small processions, and formal processions. In the grand procession, high-ranking officials led the way; the Grand General rode beside the emperor as a companion, and the Tai Pu drove the carriage. Eighty-one following carriages were arranged, with thousands of chariots and tens of thousands of horsemen in attendance. When the capital was Chang'an, such a grand procession was prepared when the Son of Heaven made sacrifices to heaven at Ganquan. All government officials followed specific ceremonial procedures; this ceremony was known as the "Ganquan Lubu." Since the revival (of the Han dynasty), it has rarely been used. During the reign of the late emperor, a grand procession was occasionally prepared for visiting Shangyuanling. Otherwise it was not commonly used; only in times of great mourning would the formal procession be employed. The Three Excellencies were not included in the procession. Only the governor of Henan, the Jinyu official, the magistrate of Luoyang, and others led the way; a Shizhong official rode beside as companion, while a Fengchelang drove the carriage. Thirty-six following carriages attended. When visiting the Northern Suburban Sacrificial Site or Mingtang Hall, all secondary carriages were omitted. The small procession was used for sacrifices to the ancestral temple. Each time it was deployed, the Tai Pu presented the ceremonial order of the procession to the Shangshu (Ministry of Works). The Shizhong, Zhongchangshi, Shiyushi, and other officials in charge, along with clerks and scribes, all held records to supervise and organize the military chariots and horsemen. The spring and autumn visits to the imperial tombs were even more simplified than the small procession; only one Shangshu official in charge of affairs followed, while all officials below the rank of Ling proceeded ahead.
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法駕、上所乘曰金根車，駕六馬，有五色，安車五色，立車各一，皆駕四馬，是為五時副車。俗人名之曰五帝車，非也。又有戎立車以征伐，三蓋車名耕根車，一名芝車，親耕耤田乘之。又有蹋豬車，慢輪有畫，田獵乘之，綠車名曰皇孫車，天子孫乘之，以從。 |
| | The formal procession: the emperor's own carriage was called the Jingen Chariot, drawn by six horses of five colors. There were also five colored An Che (palanquin carriages) and one standing chariot for each color; all were drawn by four horses, making up the Five Color Secondary Carriages. Common people call them "Five Emperors' Chariots," which is incorrect. There were also military standing chariots used for campaigns, and three covered carriages known as the Genggen Chariot or Zhi Chariot; these were ridden when personally plowing the ceremonial fields. There was also a Tazhu Chariot with slow-turning wheels and painted designs, used for farming or hunting. A green carriage called the Huangsun Chariot was ridden by the emperor's grandsons as attendants.
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凡乘輿車皆羽蓋金華瓜，黃屋左纛，金鍐方釳，繁纓重轂副牽。 |
| | All imperial carriages had feathered canopies with golden lotus decorations, yellow roofs and left-facing banners, golden tassels on square-shaped fittings, and elaborate tassels along the double hubs of the side-drawn horses.
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黃屋者，蓋以黃為裏也。 |
| | The "yellow roof" means that the interior of the canopy was lined with yellow fabric.
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左纛者，以氂牛尾為之，大如斗。在最後左騑馬騣上。金鍐者，馬冠也。高廣各四寸，如玉華形，在馬騣前。方釳者，鐵廣數寸，在騣後，有三孔，插翟尾其中，繁纓在馬膺前，如索裙者是也。 |
| | The left-facing banner was made from a yak's tail, as large as a basin. It was placed on the mane of the left hind horse at the rear. The golden tassel refers to a horse's head ornament. It was four cun in height and width, shaped like jade flowers, placed before the horse's mane. The square-shaped fittings were iron plates several cun wide, placed behind the horse's mane with three holes. Peacock tails were inserted into these holes; the elaborate tassels hung in front of the horse's chest and resembled a hanging skirt.
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重轂者，轂外復有一轂，施舝其外，乃復設牽施銅，金鍐形如緹，亞飛軨以緹油，廣八寸，長注地，左畫蒼龍，右白虎，繫軸頭，今二千石亦然，但無畫耳。 |
| | The double hubs refer to an additional hub outside the main one, with a metal pin applied externally. A copper ring was then attached in front for decoration; its shape resembled a golden tassel. The axle cover (feiling) was dyed crimson and oiled, eight cun wide and long enough to reach the ground. On the left side it depicted a blue dragon, on the right a white tiger, fastened at the end of the axle. Today, officials holding the rank of Erqianshi also use this design, but without the painted images.
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前驅有九斿雲罕闟戟皮軒鑾旗，車皆大夫載鑾旗者，編羽毛引繫橦旁，俗人名之曰雞翹車，非也。後有金鉦黃鉞黃門鼓車。古者諸侯貳車九乘，秦滅九國兼其車服，故大駕屬車八十一乘也。尚書御史乘之，最後一車懸豹尾，以前皆皮軒虎皮為之也。 |
| | The vanguard included nine streamers, cloud-shaped canopies, closed halberds, leather-draped carriages, and luan flags. All these vehicles were carried by officials of the rank Daifu (Doctor). The luan flag was attached with woven feathers to a pole on the side of the carriage; common people call this type of carriage "Jiqiao Chariot," which is incorrect. Behind were golden cymbals, yellow halberds, and Huangmen drum carriages. In ancient times, feudal lords had nine secondary chariots; the Qin dynasty annexed the nine states and incorporated their chariot styles and attire. Hence, in a grand procession there were eighty-one following carriages. The Shangshu and Yushi officials rode in these, while the last carriage displayed a leopard's tail. All carriages before it were covered with leather canopies made from tiger skins.
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永安七年，建金根、耕根諸御車，皆一轅，或四馬，或六馬。金根箱輪皆以金鎛正黃，兩臂前後刻金，以作龍虎鳥龜形，上但以青縑為蓋，羽毛無後戶。 |
| | In the seventh year of Yong'an, golden root and genggen imperial carriages were constructed; all had a single yoke, drawn by either four or six horses. The Jingen carriage had a box and wheels gilded in pure yellow. The front and back of the two sides were engraved with gold to depict dragons, tigers, birds, and turtles. However, its canopy was merely made from blue silk, without feathered decorations at the rear entrance.
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冕冠：周曰爵弁，殷曰冔，夏曰收，皆以三十升漆布為殼，廣八寸，長尺二寸，加爵冕其上，周黑而赤，如爵頭之色，前小後大，殷黑而微白，前大後小，夏純黑而赤，前小後大，皆有收以持笄。《詩》曰：「常服黼冔，禮朱干玉，戚冕而舞《大武》。」《周書》曰：「王與大夫盡弁，古皆以布，中古以絲。」孔子曰：「麻冕、禮也。今也純儉。」漢雲翹冠，樂祠天地五郊，舞者服之，冕冠垂旒，周禮、天子冕前後垂延朱綠藻有十二旒。公侯大夫各有差別。漢興至孝明帝永平二年，詔有司采《尚書·皋陶篇》及《周官》《禮記》定而制焉，皆廣七寸，長尺二寸，前圓後方，朱綠裏而玄上，前垂四寸，後垂三寸，繫白玉珠于其端，是為十二旒，組纓如其綬之色。三公及諸侯之祠者，朱綠九旒青玉珠。卿大夫七旒黑玉珠，皆有前無後，組纓各視其綬之色，旁垂黈纊當耳，郊天地、祠宗廟、祀明堂則冠之，衣黼衣，佩玉佩，履絇履。孔子曰：「服周之冕。」鄙人不識，謂之平天冠。 |
| | The ritual headdress: In the Zhou dynasty it was called "jue bian," in the Yin (Shang) dynasty "xu," and in the Xia dynasty "shou." All were made with a shell of thirty-sheng lacquered cloth, eight cun wide, one chi two cun long. A ceremonial crown was added on top: In Zhou times it was black with red tones, resembling the color of a jiao bird's head; its front part was smaller and the back larger. In Yin times it was dark but slightly white in tone, with the front part larger than the back. In Xia times it was purely black with a reddish hue, also with the front smaller and the back larger. All had a "shou" (a cap band) to hold the hairpins. The Book of Songs says: "Wearing the usual robes with fu patterns and xu caps, performing rituals with red halberds and jade weapons, wearing ceremonial crowns while dancing 'Da Wu.'" The Zhou Shu says: "The king and officials all wore bian caps. In ancient times they were made of cloth, while in the middle period they were made from silk." Confucius said: "Hemp headdresses are in accordance with ritual." "Today, they are purely made of silk for simplicity." The Han dynasty's Yunqiao Crown was worn by dancers during musical sacrifices to heaven, earth, and the five directions. The ceremonial crown with hanging pendants followed Zhou ritual: for the Son of Heaven, twelve pendants of red and green algae-like patterns hung in front and behind. Marquises, marquisates, and officials of various ranks each had their own distinctions. When the Han dynasty was founded, it was not until the second year of Yongping during Emperor Ming's reign that an imperial decree ordered officials to compile and establish regulations based on the "Gao Tao Pian" section of the Book of Documents, as well as the Rites of Zhou and Records of Ritual. The resulting design had a width of seven cun and length of one chi two cun; it was round in front and square at the back, with red and green linings and black on top. It hung four cun from the front and three cun from the back, ending in white jade beads—this formed twelve pendants. The tassels matched the color of the sash. The Three Excellencies and feudal lords who performed sacrifices wore red and green ceremonial crowns with nine pendants, each ending in a blue jade bead. Ministers and officials of the Daifu rank wore seven-pearl black jade bead pendants, with decorations in front but none at the back. The tassels were colored to match their sashes. Yellow downy feathers hung on either side by the ears. These headdresses were worn during sacrifices to heaven and earth, ancestral temples, or Mingtang ceremonies; they also wore fu-patterned robes, jade pendants, and qv-style shoes. Confucius said: "Wear the Zhou dynasty's ceremonial crown." Common people, not knowing its name, called it the Piantian Crown.
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天子冠通天冠，諸侯王冠遠遊冠，公侯冠進賢冠，公王三梁，卿大夫、尚書、二千石博士冠兩梁，千石、六百石以下至小吏冠一梁。天子、公卿、特進朝侯祀天地明堂皆冠平冕。 |
| | The Son of Heaven wore the Tiantian Crown; feudal kings and marquises wore the Yuanyou Crown. Marquises and marquisates wore the Jinxian Crown, with three beams for dukes and kings, two beams for ministers, officials, Shangshu, Erqianshi, and bo shi (doctor scholars), and one beam for officials of Qianshi rank, Liushishi rank, and below down to minor clerks. The Son of Heaven, the Three Excellencies, Tujin officials, chouhou (attending marquises), and those performing sacrifices to heaven, earth or Mingtang all wore flat ceremonial crowns.
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天子十二旒，三公九，諸侯卿七，其纓與組各如其綬之色，衣玄上纁下，日月星辰，山龍華蟲，祠宗廟則長冠袀玄。其武官太尉以下及侍中常侍皆冠惠文冠，侍中常侍加貂蟬，御史冠法冠，謁者冠高山冠。其鄉射行禮，公卿冠委貌，衣玄端，執事者皮弁服，宮門僕射冠卻非，大樂郊社祝舞者冠建華，其狀如婦人縷簏，迎氣五郊舞者所冠，亦為冕，車駕出後有巧士冠，似高山冠而小。 |
| | The Son of Heaven's headdress had twelve pendants; the Three Excellencies had nine, and marquises and ministers seven. The tassels and cords matched their sash colors. They wore black robes above with yellowish-red skirts below, embroidered with patterns of sun, moon, stars, mountains, dragons, and huachong (a mythical insect). When performing sacrifices at the ancestral temple, they wore long caps and entirely black robes. Military officials below the Taivue, as well as Shizhong and Zhongchangshi officials, wore Huiwen Crowns. The Shizhong and Zhonchangshi added sable fur and cicada ornaments to their caps. Yushi (Imperial Censors) wore Faguan Crowns; Ye Zhe (attendants) wore Gaoshan Crowns. During archery ceremonies, the Three Excellencies wore Weimao caps and black formal robes. Attendants in charge of rituals wore pibian ceremonial attire. Palace gate attendants and Puye officials wore Quefei caps. Dancers and musicians at grand sacrifices to heaven or earth wore Jianhua caps; these resembled a woman's lacquered bamboo basket. The caps worn by dancers welcoming seasonal qi at the five directions were also called "mian." When the imperial procession left, there were also Qiaoshi officials who wore small caps resembling Gaoshan Crowns but smaller in size.
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幘者，古之卑賤執事不冠者之所服也。孝武帝幸館陶公主家，召見董偃，偃傅青褠綠幘，主贊曰：主家庖人臣偃昧死再拜謁，上為之起，乃賜衣冠，引上殿。董仲舒、武帝時人，其上兩書曰：執事者皆赤幘，知皆不冠者之所服也。元帝額有壯髮，不欲使人見，始進幘服之，群臣皆隨焉，然尚無巾。如今半幘而已。王莽無髮，乃施巾，故語曰：「王莽禿，幘施屋，冠進賢者宜長耳，冠惠文者宜短耳，各隨所宜。」 |
| | Zhe was a head covering worn by lowly and menial attendants who did not wear formal caps. During the reign of Emperor Wu, when he visited the home of Princess Guantao, he summoned Dong Yan for an audience. Yan wore a green gudian robe and a green zhe head covering. The princess introduced him by saying: "A servant from my household, Minister Yan, dares to bow twice in humble submission." The emperor rose to receive him and then bestowed official robes and caps upon him before leading him onto the hall. Dong Zhongshu, a man of Emperor Wu's time, wrote in his two memorials: "All attendants wore red zhe caps," which shows that these were the head coverings worn by those who did not have official caps. Emperor Yuan had thick hair on his forehead and did not want others to see it, so he began wearing the zhe cap. All court officials followed suit; however, at that time there were still no jin (headscarves). Now they are merely half-zhe caps. Wang Mang had no hair, so he wore a headscarf. Hence the saying: "Wang Mang was bald; his zhe cap covered like a roof. Those wearing Jinxian Crowns should have long ears (side flaps), while those in Huiwen Crowns should have short ones—each according to their needs."
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通天冠、天子常服，漢服受之秦，禮無文。遠遊冠、諸侯王所服，展筩無山，《禮》無文。高山冠、齊冠也，一曰側注，高九寸，鐵為卷梁，不展筩無山，秦制：行人使官所冠。今謁者服之，《禮》無文。太傅胡公說曰：「高山冠、蓋齊王冠也。秦滅齊，以其君冠賜謁者。」 |
| | The Tiantian Crown was the Son of Heaven's regular attire. The Han dynasty adopted it from the Qin, but there were no detailed ritual records for it. The Yuanyou Crown was worn by feudal kings; it had a cylindrical shape without any mountain-shaped decorations, and there were no references to it in the Rites. The Gaoshan Crown was a cap of the Qi state, also called Cezhu. It stood nine cun high and had curved beams made from iron; it did not have a cylindrical shape or mountain decorations. This was an imperial Qin dynasty regulation: worn by officials accompanying envoys on diplomatic missions. Now, Ye Zhe officials wear it; however, there are no references to this in the Rites. Tai Fu Hu Gong said: "The Gaoshan Crown is originally the crown of a Qi king." "After the Qin destroyed Qi, they bestowed this royal cap upon Ye Zhe officials as a reward."
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進賢冠、文官服之，前高七寸，後三寸，長八寸。公侯三梁，卿大夫、尚書、博士兩梁，千石、六百石以下一梁。漢制：《禮》無文。 |
| | The Jinxian Crown was worn by civil officials. It was seven cun high at the front, three cun at the back, and eight cun long. Dukes and marquises wore it with three beams; ministers, Daifu officials, Shangshu officials, and bo shi scholars wore two beams. Officials of Qianshi or Liushishi rank and below wore one beam. This was a Han dynasty regulation; there were no references for it in the Rites.
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法冠、楚冠也。一曰柱後惠文冠，高五寸，以纚裹鐵柱卷。秦制執法服之。今御史廷尉監平服之，謂之獬豸冠。獬豸、獸名，蓋一角。今冠兩角，以獬豸為名，非也。太傅胡公說曰：「《左氏傳》有南冠而縶者。」《國語》曰：「南冠、以如夏姬。」是知南冠蓋楚之冠，秦滅楚，以其君冠賜御史。武冠或曰繁冠，今謂之大冠，武官服之。侍中、中常侍加黃金，坿貂蟬鼠尾飾之。太傅胡公說曰：「趙武靈王效胡服，始施貂蟬之飾，秦滅趙，以其君冠賜侍中。齊冠或曰長冠，竹裹以纚，高七寸，廣三寸，形如板。」 |
| | The Faguan Crown was originally from the Chu state. It is also called the Zuhou Huiwen Crown, five cun high, with a lacquered iron column wrapped inside. This was an imperial Qin dynasty regulation for officials enforcing laws to wear it. Now, Yushi (Imperial Censor), Tingwei (Minister of Justice), and Jianping (Judicial Officials) officials wear it, calling it the Xiezhi Crown. Xiezhi is a mythical beast's name; it has only one horn. Now the crown has two horns, yet they still call it Xiezhi—this is incorrect. Tai Fu Hu Gong said: "The Zuo Zhuan mentions those who were bound in 'Nan Guan.'" The Guo Yu says: "Nanguan, worn as when going to Xia Ji." This shows that Nanguan was originally a cap from the Chu state. After the Qin destroyed Chu, they bestowed its royal crown upon Yushi officials as a reward. The Wuguan was also called Fan Guan; it is now known as the Daguan, worn by military officers. Shizhong and Zhong Changshi officials added golden decorations to their caps, with sable fur, cicada ornaments, and rat-tail embellishments. Tai Fu Hu Gong said: "King Wuling of Zhao imitated the Hu people's clothing and first introduced sable fur and cicada decorations. After the Qin destroyed Zhao, they bestowed its royal cap upon Shizhong officials." The Qi Crown was also called the Changguan. It was made of bamboo wrapped in lacquer, seven cun high and three cun wide, shaped like a board.
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高祖冠、以竹皮為之，謂之劉氏冠。楚制：《禮》無文。鄙人不識，謂之鵲尾冠。 |
| | The Gaozu Crown was made from bamboo bark; it was called the Liu Shi Guan (Liu Family Crown). This was a Chu dynasty regulation: there were no references for this in the Rites. Common people, not knowing its proper name, called it Quewei Crown.
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建華冠、以鐵為柱卷貫，大珠九枚，今以銅為珠，形制似縷簏。《記》曰：「知天文者服之。」《左傳》曰：「鄭子臧好聚鷸冠。」前圖以為此制是也。天地五郊、明堂月令舞者服之。 |
| | The Jianhua Crown had an iron column with nine large pearls; now, copper is used instead of real pearls. Its shape resembles a lacquered bamboo basket. The Records say: "Those who understand astronomy wear it." The Zuo Zhuan says: "Zi Zang of Zheng loved to collect Yu Guan caps." Earlier illustrations consider this the correct design. Dancers performing at sacrifices to heaven, earth and the five directions, as well as those in Mingtang or lunar calendar ceremonies, wore it.
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方山冠、以五采縠為之，漢祀宗廟大享，《八佾》樂五行舞人服之。衣冠各從其行之色，如其方色而舞焉。 |
| | The Fangshan Crown was made of five-colored hu fabric. During grand Han dynasty sacrifices to the ancestral temple and major feasts, dancers in the "Ba Yi" music and Five Elements dance wore it. Their robes and caps followed the colors of their respective elements; they danced according to the directional color associated with each.
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術士冠、前圓，吳制邐迤四重，趙武靈王好服之，今者不用，其說未聞。 |
| | The Shuxi Shi Crown was round at the front; according to Wu dynasty regulations, it had four sloping layers. King Wuling of Zhao liked wearing it, but now it is no longer used—its explanation has not been heard of.
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巧士冠、高五寸，要後相通埽除，從官服之，《禮》無文。 |
| | The Qiaoshi Crown was five cun high; its back had a connected waist design for sweeping and cleaning. It was worn by attendants, but there are no references to it in the Rituals.
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| | 卷下: |
卻非冠、宮門僕射者服之，《禮》無文。 |
| | The Quefei Crown was worn by palace gate attendants and Puye officers; however, there are no records of it in the Rituals.
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| | 卷下: |
樊噲冠，漢將軍樊噲造次所冠，以入項籍營，廣七寸，前出四寸，司馬殿門大護衛士服之。 |
| | The Fan Kuai Crown was first worn by the Han general Fan Kuai when he rashly entered Xiang Ji's camp. It was seven cun wide, with a front protrusion of four cun. This cap was later worn by Shima Dianmen Da Huguard soldiers.
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| | 卷下: |
卻敵冠、前高四寸，通長四寸，後高三寸，監門衛士服之，《禮》無文。 |
| | The Que Di Crown was four cun high at the front, with an overall length of four cun and a height of three cun at the back. It was worn by Jianmen Wei soldiers; however, there is no mention of it in the Rituals literature.
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| | 卷下: |
珠冕、爵冔收、通天冠、進賢冠、長冠、緇布冠、委貌冠、皮弁、惠文冠，古者天子冠所加者，其次在漢禮。 |
| | Zhu Mian, Jue Xu Shou, Tongtian Guan, Jinxian Guan, Changguan, Zhi Bu Guan, Weimao Guan, Pi Bian, and Huiwen Guan—these were the crowns added by ancient emperors; their order is recorded in Han dynasty rituals.
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| | 卷下: |
帝謚：違拂不成曰隱，靖民則法曰黃，翼善傳聖曰堯，仁聖盛明曰舜，殘人多壘曰桀，殘義損善曰紂，慈惠愛親曰孝，愛民好與曰惠，聖善同文曰宣，聲聞宣遠曰昭，克定禍亂曰武，聰明睿智曰獻，溫柔聖善曰懿，布德執義曰穆，仁義說民曰元，安仁立政曰神，布綱治紀曰平，亂而不損曰靈，保民耆艾曰明，辟土有德曰襄，貞心大度曰匡，大慮慈民曰定，知過能改曰恭，不生其國曰聲，一德不懈曰簡，夙興夜寐曰敬，清白自守曰貞，柔德好眾曰靖，安樂治民曰康，小心畏忌曰僖，中身早折曰悼，慈仁和民曰順，好勇致力曰莊，恭人短折曰哀，在國逢難曰愍，名實過爽曰繆，壅遏不通曰幽，暴虐無親曰厲，致志大圖曰景，辟土兼國曰桓，經緯天地曰文，執義揚善曰懷，短折不成曰殤，去禮遠眾曰煬，怠政外交曰攜，治典不敷曰祈。 |
| | Imperial posthumous titles: one who defied and failed to accomplish anything was called Yin; one who established laws for the people's peace was Huang; one who assisted virtue in transmitting sainthood was Yao; one whose benevolence and saintliness were great and clear was Shun; one who harmed many people and built numerous fortifications was Jie; one who destroyed righteousness and damaged goodness was Zhou; one who showed kindness and loved relatives was Xiao; one who loved the people and gave generously was Hui; one whose virtue and wisdom were harmonized in culture was Xuan; one whose reputation spread far and wide was Zhao; one who quelled disaster and chaos was Wu; one who was wise, intelligent, and perceptive was Xian; one with gentle kindness and saintly virtue was Yi; one who spread virtue and upheld righteousness was Mu; one who practiced benevolence and won the people's favor was Yuan; one who governed with peace and established policies was Shen; one who organized laws and regulated order was Ping; one whose chaos did not diminish was Ling; one who protected the people and lived long was Ming; one who expanded territory with virtue was Xiang; one of steadfast heart and great tolerance was Kuang; one with deep concern for the people was Ding; one who recognized faults and corrected them was Gong; one who died outside his homeland was Sheng; one whose single virtue never wavered was Jian; one who rose early and slept late in duty was Jing; one who maintained integrity and self-discipline was Zhen; one with gentle virtue and popularity among the people was Jing (again); one who brought peace and governed well was Kang; one cautious and reverent of taboos was Xi; one whose life ended prematurely was Dao; one kind, benevolent, and harmonious to the people was Shun (again); one valiant and devoted was Zhuang; one respectful but died young was Ai; one who encountered hardship in his homeland was Min; one whose name did not match reality was Miu; one obstructed and uncommunicative was You; one cruel and without affection was Li; one with grand aspirations was Jing (again); one expanding territory and annexing states was Huan; one who structured the heavens and earth was Wen; one upholding righteousness and promoting goodness was Huai; one whose life was cut short before achievements were made was Shang; one who abandoned rites and distanced from people was Yang; one negligent in governance and involved in foreign affairs was Xie; one who failed to properly implement regulations was Qi.
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