Group Selection

Eighteenth-century German writers with broad interests in natural history, and in particular, in the kind of ethnographic reports typically included in travel and expedition narratives, had to be able to access and read the original reports or they had to work with translations. The translators of these reports were, moreover, typically forced more than usual into the role of interpreter. This was especially the case when it came to accounts wherein vocabulary did not exist or was at least not settled, (...) and more importantly where scientific understanding was uncertain or altogether lacking, a situation that could only make the creation of semantic categories all the more significant. With this state of affairs in mind, this essay concentrates on Immanuel Kant’s work to develop a specialised racial vocabulary, and does so in a manner that reveals the importance of Buffon’s account of variation as a resource for Kant, even as Kant sought to position the new vocabulary as an improved template for transforming taxonomy or Naturbeschreibung into a genuine historical science or Naturgeschichte. (shrink)

Understanding community-level selection using Lewontin’s criteria requires both community-level inheritance and community-level heritability, and in the discipline of community and ecosystem genetics, these are often conflated. While there are existing studies that show the possibility of both, these studies impose community-level inheritance as a product of the experimental design. For this reason, these experiments provide only weak support for the existence of community-level selection in nature. By contrast, treating communities as interactors (in line with Hull’s replicator-interactor framework or Dawkins’s idea (...) of the “extended phenotype”) provides a more plausible and empirically supportable model for the role of ecological communities in the evolutionary process. (shrink)

Charles Darwin (1809–1882) Charles Darwin is primarily known as the architect of the theory of evolution by natural selection. With the publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859, he advanced a view of the development of life on earth that profoundly shaped nearly all biological and much philosophical thought which followed. A number….

Debates concerning the units and levels of selection have persisted for over fifty years. One major question in this literature is whether units and levels of selection are genuine, in the sense that they are objective features of the world, or merely reflect the interests and goals of an observer. Scientists and philosophers have proposed a range of answers to this question. This Element introduces this literature and proposes a novel contribution. It defends a realist stance and offers a way (...) of delineating genuine levels of selection by invoking the notion of a functional unit. (shrink)

The origin of human cooperation poses an evolutionary puzzle. In order for cooperation to evolve, our Pleistocene ancestors must have overcome the free rider problem, in which noncooperators reap the benefits of cooperation without paying the costs. Cultural group selection accounts offer a potential solution to this problem. In this article, I evaluate Boyd and Richerson’s influential account. I argue that it cannot explain the evolutionary origins of human cooperation because it presupposes cooperative behaviors among our Pleistocene ancestors. Although Boyd (...) and Richerson’s account may explain the expansion of cooperation in hominin evolution, it cannot explain how cooperative behaviors first emerged. (shrink)

The article proposes to further develop the ideas of the Extended Evolutionary Synthesis by including into evolutionary research an analysis of phenomena that occur above the organismal level. We demonstrate that the current Extended Synthesis is focused more on individual traits (genetically or non-genetically inherited) and less on community system traits (synergetic/organizational traits) that characterize transgenerational biological, ecological, social, and cultural systems. In this regard, we will consider various communities that are made up of interacting populations, and for which the (...) individual members can belong to the same or to different species. Examples of communities include biofilms, ant colonies, symbiotic associations resulting in holobiont formation, and human societies. The proposed model of evolution at the level of communities revises classic theorizing on the major transitions in evolution by analyzing the interplay between community/social traits and individual traits, and how this brings forth ideas of top-down regulations of bottom-up evolutionary processes (collaboration of downward and upward causation). The work demonstrates that such interplay also includes reticulate interactions and reticulate causation. In this regard, we exemplify how community systems provide various non-genetic ‘scaffoldings’, ‘constraints’, and ‘affordances’ for individual and sociocultural evolutionary development. Such research complements prevailing models that focus on the vertical transmission of heritable information, from parent to offspring, with research that instead focusses on horizontal, oblique and even reverse information transmission, going from offspring to parent. We call this reversed information transfer the ‘offspring effect’ to contrast it from the ‘parental effect’. We argue that the proposed approach to inheritance is effective for modelling cumulative and distributed developmental process and for explaining the biological origins and evolution of language. (shrink)

Heyes’ book is an essential addition to the literature on human uniqueness. Her main claim is that the key human cognitive capacities are products of cultural rather than genetic evolution. Among these distinctively human capacities are causal understanding, episodic memory, imitation, mindreading, and normative thinking. According to Heyes, they emerged not by genetic mutation but by innovations in cognitive development. She calls these mechanisms ‘cognitive gadgets.’ This is perhaps one of the best and most comprehensive views of human cognitive evolution (...) advanced in recent years. (shrink)

Знаменитый человек-муравей Э.О. Уилсон всегда был одним из моих героев - не только выдающимся биологом, но и одним из крошечных и исчезающих меньшинств интеллектуалов, которые, по крайней мере, осмеливаются намекнуть на правду о нашей природе, которую другие не понимают, или, поскольку ониd-o хватаются, старательно избегают политической целесообразности. К сожалению, он заканчивает свою долгую карьеру в самых грязную моду в качестве участника невежественных и высокомерных нападение на науку мотивированы по крайней мере частично религиозный пыл его коллег Гарварда. Это показывает, гнусные последствия, (...) когда университеты принимают деньги от религиозных групп, научные журналы настолько благоговение громких имен, что они избегают надлежащего рецензирования, и когда эго разрешено выйти из-под контроля. Она переносит нас в природу эволюции, основы научной методологии, как математика относится к науке, что представляет собой теория, и даже то, что отношение к религии и щедрость являются уместными, как мы неумолимо приближаемся к краху промышленной цивилизации. Те, кто желает всеобъемлющего до современных рамок для человеческого поведения из современных двух systEms зрения могут проконсультироваться с моей книгой"Логическая структура философии, психологии, Минd иязык в Людвиг Витгенштейн и Джон Сирл" второй ред (2019). Те, кто заинтересован в более моих сочинений могут увидеть "Говоря обезьян - Философия, психология, наука, религия и политика на обреченной планете - Статьи и обзоры 2006-2019 3-й ed (2019) и suicidal утопических заблуждений в 21-мst веке 4-й ed (2019) th и другие. (shrink)

Так как Гинтис является старшим экономистом, и я читал некоторые из его предыдущих книг с интересом, я ожидал еще несколько понимание поведения. Ксожалению, он делает мертвые руки группового отбора и меноменологии в центральными его теории поведения, и это в значительной степени недействительными работы. Хуже того, так как он показывает такие плохие суждения здесь, это ставит под сомнение все его предыдущие работы. Попытка воскресить выбор группы его друзьями в Гарварде, Новаком и Уилсоном, Несколько лет назад был одним из главных скандалов в (...) биологии в последнее десятилетие, и я рассказал печальную историю в моей статье "Альтруизм, Иисус и конец света, как Templeton Фонд купил Профессорство Гарварда и напали Эволюция, Рациональность и цивилизация - Обзор Э. О. Уилсон "Социальное завоевание Земли" (2012) и Новак филд и High 'SuperCooperators' (201) В отличие от Новака, Гинтис, кажется, не мотивирован религиозным фанатизмом, а сильным желанием создать альтернативу мрачным реалиям человеческой природы, упрощаемым (почти всеобщим) непониманием фундаментальной человеческой биологии и пустым сланцизмом поведенческих ученых, других ученых и широкой общественности. Гинтис справедливо атакует (как он уже много раз) экономистов, социологов и других поведенческих ученых за отсутствие последовательной основы для описания поведения. Конечно,рамки, необходимые для понимания поведения, эволюционные. К сожалению, он не в состоянии обеспечить один сам (в соответствии с его многочисленными критиками, и я согласен), и попытка привить гнилой труп группы отбора на любые экономические и психологические теории он породил в своей десятилетия работы, просто недействительными весь его проект. Хотя Гинтис прилагает доблестные усилия, чтобы понять и объяснить генетику, как Уилсон и Новак, он далек от эксперта, и, как они, математика просто ослепляет его биологических невозможностей и, конечно, это норма в науке. Как Витгенштейн лихо отметил на первой странице культуры и ценности "Существует нет религиозной конфессии, в которой злоупотребление метафизических выражений несет ответственность за столько греха, как это было в математике". Всегда было кристально ясно, что ген, который вызывает поведение, которое уменьшает свою собственную частоту, не может сохраняться, но это ядро понятия группового отбора. Кроме того, было хорошо известно, и часто демонстрируется, что групповой выбор просто сводится к инклюзивной фитнес (выбор родственников), который, как Докинз отметил, это просто еще одно название для эволюции естественного отбора. Как и Уилсон, Гинтис проработал в этой сфере около 50 лет и до сих пор не понял ее, но после того, как разразился скандал, мне понадобилось всего 3 дня, чтобы найти, прочитать и понять наиболее актуальную профессиональную работу, как подробно описано в моей статье. Это ум boggling понять, что Гинтис и Уилсон были не в состоянии сделать это в почти полвека. Я обсуждаю ошибки группового отбора и феномологии, которые являются нормой в академических кругах, как особые случаи почти всеобщего непонимания человеческой природы, которые разрушают Америку и мир. Те, кто желает всеобъемлющего до современных рамок для человеческого поведения из современных двух systEms зрения могут проконсультироваться с моей книгой"Логическая структура философии, психологии, Минd иязык в Людвиг Витгенштейн и Джон Сирл" второй ред (2019). Те, кто заинтересован в более моих работ могут увидеть "Говоря обезьян --Философия, Психология, Наука, Религия и Политика на обреченной. (shrink)

Это не идеальная книга, но она уникальна, и если вы обезжиренное первые 400 или около того страниц, последние 300 (около 700) являются довольно хорошей попыткой применить то, что известно о поведении к социальным изменениям в насилии и манеры с течением времени. Основная тема: как наша генетика контролирует и ограничивает социальные изменения? Удивительно, но он не может описать природу выбора родственников (инклюзивный фитнес), который объясняет большую часть животной и человеческой социальной жизни. Он также (как и почти все) не имеет четкой основы (...) для описания логической структуры рациональности (LSR-Джон Сирл предпочтительным термином), который я предпочитаю называть описательной психологии высшего порядка мысли (DPHOT). Он должен был сказать что-то о многих других способах злоупотребления и эксплуатации людей и планеты, так как они в настоящее время гораздо более серьезными, чтобы сделать другие формы насилия почти не имеет значения. Расширение концепции насилия, чтобы включить глобальные долгосрочные-долгосрочные последствия репликации чьих-то генов, и наличие понимания природы, как работает эволюция (т.е. выбор родственников) обеспечит совершенно иной взгляд на историю, текущие события, и как вещи, вероятно, будет идти в ближайшие несколько сотен лет. Можно начать с того, что снижение физического насилия над историей было сопоставлено (и стало возможным) из-за постоянно растущего беспощадного изнасилования планеты (т.е. уничтожения людьми будущего своего потомка).’ Пинкер (как и большинство людей большую часть времени) часто отвлекается на поверхностности культуры, когда это биология, что вопросы. Смотрите мои последние обзоры Уилсона "Социальное завоевание Земли" и Новак и Хайфилд 'SuperCooperators' здесь и в сети для краткого резюме пустоты "истинный альтруизм"(выбор группы), а также операции выбора родственников и бесполезности и поверхностности описания поведения в культурном плане. Это классический вопрос природы / воспитания и природа козыри воспитывать - бесконечно. Что действительно имеет значение, так это насилие, предъехав земле в результате неустанного увеличения численности населения и уничтожения ресурсов (из-за медицины и технологий и подавления конфликтов полицией и военными). Около 200000 больше людей в день (еще Лас-Вегас каждые 10 дней, другой Лос-Анджелес каждый месяц), 6 тонн или около того верхнего слоя почвы вдаваясь в море / человек / год - около 1% от общего числа исчезающих в мире ежегодно, и т.д. означает, что если какое-то чудо происходит биосферы и цивилизации будет в значительной степени краха в течение ближайших двух столетий,, и не будет голодания, страданий и насилия в любом масштабе. Народные манеры, мнения и тенденции к совершению актов насилия не имеют никакого значения, если они не могут сделать что-то, чтобы избежать этой катастрофы, и я не вижу, как это произойдет. Существует нет места для аргументов, и нет смысла либо (да, я фаталист), так что я просто сделать несколько замечаний, как если бы они были факты. Не думайте, что я лично заинтересован в продвижении одной группы за счет других. Я 78, неимеют потомков и близких родственников и не отождествляют себя с какой-либо политической, национальной или религиозной группы и рассматривать те, которые я принадлежу по умолчанию так же отвратительно, как и все остальные. Родители являются злейшими врагами жизни на Земле, и, принимая широкий взгляд на вещи, женщины, как насильственные, как и мужчины, если учесть тот факт, что насилие женщин (как и большинство, что сделано мужчинами) в значительной степени осуществляется в замедленном темпе, на расстоянии во времени и пространстве и в основном осуществляется по доверенности их потомков и мужчин. Все чаще женщины рожают детей независимо от того, имеют ли они партнера, и эффект от остановки размножения одной женщины в среднем намного больше, чем остановка одного мужчины, поскольку они являются узким местом в области репродуктивного здоровья. Можно принять мнение, что люди и их потомки богато заслуживают любого страдания приходит их пути и (за редким исключением) богатые и знаменитые являются худшими преступниками. Мерил Стрип или Билл Гейтс или Джоан Роулинг и каждый из их детей может уничтожить 50 тонн верхнего слоя почвы каждый год для поколений в будущем, в то время как индийский фермер и его может уничтожить 1 тонну. Если кто-то отрицает это, что это нормально, и их потомки я говорю: "Добро пожаловать в ад на Земле" (WTHOE). В настоящее время основное внимание всегда уделяется правам человека, но ясно, что для того, чтобы цивилизация была шансом, ответственность за человека должна заменить права человека. Никто не получает права, не будучи ответственным гражданином, и первое, что это означает, является minimal экологического уничтожения. Основная ответственность не дети, если ваше общество просит вас производить их. Общество или мир, который позволяет людям размножаться наугад, всегда будут эксплуатироваться эгоистичными генами, пока не рухнет (или достигнет точки, где жизнь настолько ужасна, что не стоит жить). Если общество продолжает поддерживать права человекав качестве первичного, то их, потомки можно с уверенностью сказать "WTHOE". Те, кто желает всеобъемлющего до современных рамок для человеческого поведения из современных двух systEms зрения могут проконсультироваться с моей книгой"Логическая структура философии, психологии, Минd иязык в Людвиг Витгенштейн и Джон Сирл" второй ред (2019). Те, кто заинтересован в более моих сочинений могут увидеть "Говоря обезьян- Философия, психология, наука, религия и политика на обреченной планете - Статьи и обзоры 2006-20193-й ed (2019) и suicidal утопических заблуждений в 21-мst веке 4-й ed (2019) th и другие. (shrink)

यह व्यवहार पर जीन/पर्यावरण बातचीत की एक उत्कृष्ट समीक्षा है और, थोड़ा दिनांकित होने के बावजूद, एक आसान और सार्थक पढ़ा है. वे जुड़वां अध्ययन जो व्यवहार पर आनुवंशिकी के भारी प्रभाव दिखाने के साथ शुरू करते हैं. वे जूडिथ हैरिस के तेजी से अच्छी तरह से ज्ञात अध्ययन जो विस्तार और तथ्यों है कि साझा घर के माहौल व्यवहार पर लगभग कोई प्रभाव नहीं है संक्षेप में ध्यान दें और कहा कि गोद लिया बच्चों को अपने सौतेले भाई और (...) बहनों से अलग होने के रूप में लोगों को चुना के रूप में बड़े होते हैं यादृच्छिक पर. एक बुनियादी बात यह है कि वे (और लगभग सभी जो व्यवहार आनुवंशिकी पर चर्चा) ध्यान दें करने में विफल है कि सैकड़ों (हजारों अपने दृष्टिकोण के आधार पर) मानव व्यवहार सार्वभौमिक, हमारे व्यक्तित्व के सभी मूल बातें सहित, 100% हमारे जीन द्वारा निर्धारित कर रहे हैं, के साथ सामान्य में कोई भिन्नता नहीं है. हर कोई एक पेड़ के रूप में एक पेड़ देखता है और एक पत्थर नहीं, चाहता है और खाना खाता है, गुस्सा और ईर्ष्या आदि हो जाता है तो, क्या वे ज्यादातर यहाँ के बारे में बात कर रहे हैं कितना पर्यावरण (संस्कृति) डिग्री जो करने के लिए विभिन्न लक्षण दिखाए जाते हैं, बजाय उनकी उपस्थिति को प्रभावित कर सकते हैं. अंत में, वे हमेशा की तरह राजनीतिक रूप से सही फैशन में eugenics पर चर्चा, ध्यान दें कि हम और सभी जीवप्रकृति के eugenics के उत्पादों रहे हैं और है कि एक पूरे के रूप में दवा, कृषि, और सभ्यता के साथ प्राकृतिक चयन को हराने के प्रयास में विफल रहा है, कर रहे हैं ऐसा करने मेंबनी रहने वाले किसी भी समाज के लिए विनाशकारी. सभी धारणाओं, या कुछ 100 मिलियन /वर्ष के 50% के रूप में ज्यादा के रूप में, जल्दी सहज गर्भपात में अंत, लगभग सभी माँ के बारे में पता किया जा रहा बिना. दोषपूर्ण जीन के इस प्राकृतिक culling विकास ड्राइव, हमें अपेक्षाकृत आनुवंशिक रूप से ध्वनि रहता है और समाज संभव बनाता है. Dysgenics सभ्यता को नष्ट करने के लिए पर्याप्त है , लेकिन overpopulation dयहपहलेहोगा. आधुनिक दो systems दृश्यसे मानव व्यवहार के लिए एक व्यापक अप करने के लिए तारीख रूपरेखा इच्छुक लोगों को मेरी पुस्तक 'दर्शन, मनोविज्ञान, मिनडी और लुडविगमें भाषा की तार्किक संरचना से परामर्श कर सकते हैं Wittgenstein और जॉन Searle '2एन डी एड (2019). मेरे लेखन के अधिक में रुचि रखने वालों को देख सकतेहैं ' बात कर रहेबंदर- दर्शन, मनोविज्ञान, विज्ञान, धर्म और राजनीति पर एक Doomed ग्रह --लेख और समीक्षा 2006-2017' 3rd ed (2019). (shrink)

유명한 개미맨 E.O. 윌슨은 뛰어난 생물학자일 뿐만 아니라, 적어도 다른 사람들이 이해하지 못하는 우리의 본성에 대한 진실을 감히 암시하기 위해 감히, 또는 정치적 편의를위해 공전적으로 피하는 소수의 지식인 중 한 명입니다. 슬프게도, 그는 적어도 하버드 동료들의 종교적 열정에 의해 동기를 부여 과학에 대한 무지하고 오만한 공격의 당사자로서 가장 끔찍한 방식으로 자신의 긴 경력을 끝내고 종교적 열정 있습니다. 그것은 대학이 종교 단체에서 돈을 받아 들일 때 사악한 결과를 보여줍니다, 과학 저널은 그들이 적절한 동료 검토를 피할 수 있도록 큰 이름에 의해 너무 (...) 경외, 그리고 자아가 통제에서 얻을 수 있을 때. 그것은 진화의 본질, 과학적 방법론의 기초, 수학이 과학과 어떻게 관련되는지, 이론을 구성하는 것이 무엇인지, 그리고 산업 문명의 붕괴에 가차없이 접근할 때 종교와 관대함에 대한 태도가 어떤 적절한지에 대해 설명합니다. 현대 의 두 시스템 보기에서인간의 행동에 대한 포괄적 인 최신 프레임 워크를 원하는 사람들은 내 책을 참조 할 수 있습니다'철학의 논리적 구조, 심리학, 민d와 루드비히 비트겐슈타인과 존 Searle의언어' 2nd ed (2019). 내 글의 더 많은 관심있는 사람들은 '이야기 원숭이를 볼 수 있습니다-철학, 심리학, 과학, 종교와 운명 행성에 정치 - 기사 및 리뷰 2006-2019 3 rd 에드 (2019) 및 21st 세기 4번째 에드 (2019) 및 기타에서 자살 유토피아 망상. (shrink)

著名的蚂蚁人E.O.Wilson一直是我的英雄之一——不仅是一位杰出的生物学家,而且是一小撮正在消失的知识分子,他们至少敢于暗示我们本性的真相,而其他人却无法领会,或者只要他们所掌握的,刻意避免政治权 宜之计。可悲的是,他以最脏的方式结束了他漫长的职业生涯,成为对科学的无知和傲慢攻击的一方,至少部分是出于哈佛同事的宗教热情。它显示了当大学接受宗教团体的钱,科学期刊被大牌们敬畏,以至于他们避免适当的同 行评议,当自我被允许失控时,后果不堪设想。它带我们进入进化的本质,科学方法论的基础,数学如何与科学的关系,什么构成一个理论,甚至什么态度的宗教和慷慨是适当的,因为我们无情地接近工业的崩溃文明。 那些希望从现代两个系统的观点来看为人类行为建立一个全面的最新框架的人,可以查阅我的书《路德维希的哲学、心理学、Min d和语言的逻辑结构》维特根斯坦和约翰·西尔的《第二部》(2019年)。那些对我更多的作品感兴趣的人可能会看到《会说话的猴子——一个末日星球上的哲学、心理学、科学、宗教和政治——文章和评论2006-20 19年第3次(2019年)和自杀乌托邦幻想21篇世纪4日 (2019) .

Gintis는 수석 경제학자이며 이전 책을 관심으로 읽었기 때문에 행동에 대한 더 많은 통찰력을 기대했습니다. 슬프게도,, 그는 집단 선택과 현상의 죽은 손을 행동 이론의 중심에 두고, 이것은 크게 작품을 무효화한다. 더 나쁜 것은 그가 여기에 그런 나쁜 판단을 보여 주므로, 그것은 그의 모든 이전 작품에 의문을 불러 불러 올 수 있습니다. 하버드, 노박, 윌슨에서 그의 친구들에 의해 그룹 선택을 부활하는 시도, 몇 년 전 지난 10 년 동안 생물학의 주요 스캔들 중 하나였고, 나는 템플턴 재단이 하버드 교수직을 구입하고 진화, 합리성 및 (...) 문명을 공격한 방법 - 내 기사 '이타주의, 예수 세계의 종말'에서 슬픈 이야기를 들려주었습니다. 노왁과 는 달리, 진티스는 종교적 광신주의에 의해 동기를 부여하지 않는 것 같다, 하지만 인간의 본성의 냉혹한 현실에 대한 대안을 생성하는 강한 욕망에 의해, 쉽게 만든 (거의 보편적 인) 기본 인간의 생물학과 행동 과학자의 빈 슬레이트의 부족, 다른 학자, 일반 대중. Gintis는 행동을 설명하는 일관된 프레임 워크를 가지고 있지 않은 경제학자, 사회학자 및 기타 행동 과학자를 올바르게 공격합니다. 물론행동을 이해하는 데 필요한 프레임 워크는 진화적 입니다. 불행하게도, 그는 자신을 제공하지 못합니다 (그의 많은 비평가와 나는 동의에 따라), 그리고 그가 작업의 수십 년 동안 생성 한 어떤 경제적, 심리적 이론에 그룹 선택의 썩은 시체를 접목하는 시도, 단지 그의 전체 프로젝트를 무효화. 진티스는 윌슨과 노박과 같은 유전학을 이해하고 설명하기 위해 용감한 노력을 기울이고 있지만, 그는 전문가와는 거리가 멀고, 그들처럼 수학은 그를 생물학적 불가능성에 눈멀게 하고 물론 이것이 과학의 규범입니다. Wittgenstein은 문화와 가치의 첫 페이지에 유명한 "형이상학적 표현의 오용이 수학에서와 같이 너무 많은 죄에 대한 책임이있는 종교적 교단이 없다." 자신의 주파수를 감소시키는 행동을 일으키는 원인이 되는 유전자가 지속될 수 없다는 것을 항상 명확했습니다, 그러나 이것은 단 선택의 개념의 핵심입니다. 또한, 그것은 잘 알려져 있으며 종종 그룹 선택이 단지 포함 피트 니스 (친족 선택)로 감소 것을 보여 주었다, 이는, Dawkins가 언급 한 바와 같이, 자연 선택에 의해 진화를위한 또 다른 이름입니다. 윌슨처럼, Gintis는 약 50 년 동안이 분야에서 일해 왔으며 여전히 그것을 파악하지 못했지만 스캔들이 터진 후 내 기사에서 자세히 설명 한 바와 같이 가장 관련성이 있는 전문 작업을 찾고 읽고 이해하는 데 3 일밖에 걸리지 않았습니다. 진티스와 윌슨이 거의 반세기 만에 이 것을 성취하지 못했다는 사실은 마음이 벅차다. 저는 학계에서 규범인 집단 선택과 현상의 오류에 대해 미국과 세계를 파괴하는 인간의 본성을 이해하지 못하는 보편적인 실패의 특별한 사례로 논의합니다. 현대 의 두 systems보기에서인간의 행동에 대한 포괄적 인 최신 프레임 워크를 원하는 사람들은 내 책을 참조 할 수 있습니다'철학의 논리적 구조, 심리학, 민d와 루드비히 비트겐슈타인과 존 Searle의언어' 2nd ed (2019). 내 글의 더 많은 관심있는 사람들은 '이야기 원숭이를 볼 수 있습니다-철학, 심리학, 과학, 종교와 운명 행성에 정치 - 기사 및 리뷰 2006-2019 3 rd ed (2019) 및 21st 세기 4번째 에드에서 자살 유토피아 망상 (2019) . (shrink)

이것은 완벽한 책은 아니지만 독특하며 처음 400 개 정도를 훑어 보면 마지막 300 페이지 (약 700 개)는 시간이 지남에 따라 폭력과 매너의 사회적 변화에 대한 행동에 대해 알려진 것을 적용하는 꽤 좋은 시도입니다. 기본 주제는 : 우리의 유전학은 어떻게 사회적 변화를 제어하고 제한합니까? 놀랍게도 그는 동물과 인간의 사회 생활의 대부분을 설명하는 친족 선택 (포괄적 인 피트니스)의 본질을 설명하지 못합니다. 그는 또한 (거의 모든 사람처럼) 내가 높은 질서 생각의 설명 심리학을 호출하는 것을 선호 합리성의 논리적 구조를 설명하기위한 명확한 프레임 워크가 부족 (...) (LSR - 존 Searle의 선호 용어) (DPHOT). 그는 사람과 지구를 학대하고 착취하는 다른 많은 방법에 대해 뭔가를 말했어야 했는데, 이는 이제 다른 형태의 폭력을 거의 무관하게 만드는 것만큼 훨씬 더 심각하기 때문에. 폭력의 개념을 확장하여 누군가의-유전자복제의 장기적인 결과, 그리고 진화가 어떻게 작동하는지(즉, 친족 선택)의 본질을 파악하는 것은 역사, 시사, 그리고 앞으로 몇 백 년 동안 어떻게 진행될 지에 대한 매우 다른 관점을 제공할 것입니다. 하나는 역사를 통해 물리적 폭력의 감소가 일치 (그리고 가능하게 했다) 행성의 끊임없이 증가 무자비한 강간에 의해 지적 에 의해 시작할 수 있습니다 (즉, 자신의 후손의’미래의 사람들의 파괴에의해). 핑커 (대부분의 사람들처럼) 종종 중요한 생물학 때 문화의 피상성에 의해 산만. 윌슨의 '지구의 사회적 정복'과 노왁과 하이필드의 '슈퍼 코퍼레이터'에 대한 최근의 리뷰를 참고하여 '진정한 이타주의'(그룹선택)의 공백에 대한 간략한 요약과 친족 선택의 운영, 문화적 용어로 행동을 묘사하는 무의미함과 피상성에 대한 간략한 요약을 확인하십시오. 이것은 고전적인 자연 / 양육 문제이며 자연은 무한히 양육합니다. 정말 중요한 것은 인구와 자원 파괴의 끊임없는 증가에 의해 지구에 행해진 폭력입니다 (의학과 기술 및 경찰과 군대에 의한 갈등 억압으로 인해). 하루에 약 200,000명(10일마다 다른 라스베이거스, 매달 다른 로스앤젤레스), 바다/사람/년으로 들어가는 표토의 6톤 정도는 매년 전 세계 전체의 약 1%가 사라지는 등, 생물권과 문명이 다음 2세기, 동안 크게 붕괴되고, 기아와 폭력이 있을 것이라는 것을 6 의미합니다. 폭력적인 행위를 저지르는 사람들의 매너, 의견, 경향은 이 재앙을 피하기 위해 무언가를 할 수 없다면 아무런 관련이 없으며, 어떻게 될지 모르겠습니다. 논쟁을위한 공간이 없으며, 아무 소용이 없습니다 (예 나는 운명주의자입니다), 그래서 나는 단지 그들이 사실인 것처럼 몇 가지 의견을 할 것입니다. 내가 다른 사람을 희생하여 한 그룹을 홍보하는 개인적인 스테이크가 있다고 상상하지 마십시오. 나는 78입니다, 어떤 후손과 가까운 친척이 없고 어떤 정치적, 국가 적 또는 종교 단체와 식별하고 내가 기본적으로 모든 나머지만큼 반발로 속하는 사람을 고려하지 않습니다. 부모는 지구상에서 삶의 최악의 적이며, 사물의 넓은 관점을 취하면, 여성의 폭력 (남자에 의해 행해진 대부분의 것과 같이)이 주로 슬로우 모션으로 이루어지며, 시공의 거리에서 주로 그들의 후손과 남성에 의해 대리로 수행된다는 사실을 고려할 때 여성은 남성만큼 폭력적입니다. 점점 더, 여자는 그(것)들이 생식 병목 현상이기 때문에, 한 여자를 사육에서 중단하는 효력이 한 남자를 중단하는 효력이 있기 때문에, 말다. 사람과 그들의 자손이 어떤 불행이 닥치든 부유하고 유명한 사람들이 최악의 범죄자라는 견해를 취할 수 있습니다. 메릴 스트립이나 빌 게이츠 또는 J.K 롤링과 그들의 아이들의 각각은 미래에 세대를 위해 매년 50 톤의 표토를 파괴 할 수 있으며, 인도 농부와 그의 농부는 1 톤을 파괴 할 수 있습니다. 누군가가 괜찮다고 부인하면, 그리고 그들의 후손들에게 나는 "지구상의 지옥에 오신 것을 환영합니다"(WTHOE)라고 말합니다. 요즘은 항상 인권에 중점을 두고 있지만, 문명이 기회를 놓치려면 인간의 책임이 인권을 대체해야 한다는 것은 분명합니다. 아무도 책임있는 시민이되지 않고 권리를 얻지 못하고 이것이 의미하는 첫 번째 일은 최소한의 환경 파괴입니다. 사회가 그들을 생산하도록 요구하지 않는 한 가장 기본적인 책임은 아이들이 아닙니다. 사람들이 무작위로 번식 할 수있는 사회 또는 세계는 붕괴 될 때까지 항상 이기적인 유전자에 의해 악용될 것입니다 (또는 삶이 너무 끔찍한 곳에 도달할 때까지 살 가치가 없습니다). 사회가 인권을 1차로 유지한다면,, 그들의 후손들에게는 자신있게 "WTHOE"라고 말할 수 있다. 현대 의 두 시스템 보기에서인간의 행동에 대한 포괄적 인 최신 프레임 워크를 원하는 사람들은 내 책을 참조 할 수 있습니다'철학의 논리적 구조, 심리학, 민d와 루드비히 비트겐슈타인과 존 Searle의언어' 2nd ed (2019). 내 글의 더 많은 관심있는 사람들은 '이야기 원숭이를 볼 수 있습니다-철학, 심리학, 과학, 종교와 운명 행성에 정치 - 기사 및 리뷰 2006-2019 3 rd 에드 (2019) 및 21st 세기 4번째 에드 (2019) 및 기타에서 자살 유토피아 망상. (shrink)

La predisposición genética a ayudar a nuestros parientes cercanos ("altruismo"), que era vital para la supervivencia en nuestros antepasados en las llanuras de Africa de cenas de miles a decenas de millones de años atrás, es un defecto fatal en un mundo superpoblado donde nuestros vecinos ya no están estrechamente relacionados y están involucrados en una lucha de vida o muerte por la supervivencia. Me he referido a esto como "El gran delirio de la familia feliz" y es fundamental para (...) los delirios utópicos suicidas de la izquierda política, que surgen debido a la abundancia temporal de recursos y la relativa paz que es posible gracias a la despiadada violación de la tierra. Los puntos de vista políticos liberales que tenían sentido en el pasado están provocando el colapso de las sociedades democráticas modernas y tal vez de la civilización misma. Aunque esto es obvio para cualquier niño brillante de diez años con acceso a la red o incluso televisión por satélite, es totalmente opaco para el liberal/democrático/neomarxista/neofascista/tercer supremacista mundial/20,30,40 algo googloides y iPhoners, que pronto asumirá y destruirá la prosperidad y la paz en Estados Unidos y el Reino Unido, y luego el mundo, tanto directamente, como dejándolo abierto a la destrucción por parte de los Cárteles mexicanos, yihadistas islámicos y mucho más allá, los Siete Sópatas que gobiernan China. Estados Unidos y el mundo están en proceso de colapso por el crecimiento excesivo de la población, la mayor parte del siglo pasado, y ahora todo, debido a la gente del tercer mundo. El consumo de recursos y la adición de 2.000 millones más alrededor de 2100 colapsarán la civilización industrial y provocarán hambre, enfermedades, violencia y guerra a una escala asombrosa. La tierra pierde al menos el 1% de su suelo superior cada año, por lo que a medida que se acerca a 2100, la mayor parte de su capacidad de cultivo de alimentos desaparecerá. Miles de millones morirán y la guerra nuclear es muy segura. En Estados Unidos, esto está siendo enormemente acelerado por la inmigración masiva y la reproducción de inmigrantes, combinado con los abusos que hacen posible la democracia. La depravada naturaleza humana convierte inexorablemente el sueño de la democracia y la diversidad en una pesadilla del crimen y la pobreza. Gnorancede la biología básica y lapsicología conduce a los delirios de ingeniería social de los parcialmente educados que controlan las sociedades democráticas. Pocos entienden que si ayudas a una persona, dañas a otra persona, no hay almuerzo gratis y cada artículo que alguien consume destruye la tierra más allá de la reparación. En consecuencia, las políticas sociales en todas partes son insostenibles y una a una todas las sociedades sin estrictos controles sobre el egoísmo se derrumbarán en anarquía o dictadura. Los hechos más básicos, casi nunca mencionados, son que no hay suficientes recursos en Estados Unidos o en el mundo para sacar a un porcentaje significativo de los pobres de la pobreza y mantenerlos allí. El intento de hacer esto es la bancarrota de Estados Unidos y la destrucción del mundo. La capacidad de la tierra para producir alimentos disminuye diariamente, al igual que nuestra calidad genética. Y ahora, como siempre, el mayor enemigo de los pobres es otro pobre y no los ricos. Sin cambios dramáticos e inmediatos, no hay esperanza de impedir el colapso de Estados Unidos, ni de ningún país que siga un sistema democrático. (shrink)

Humans often behave altruistically towards strangers with no chance of reciprocation. From an evolutionary perspective, this is puzzling. The evolution of altruistic cooperative behavior—in which an organism’s action reduces its fitness and increases the fitness of another organism —only makes sense when it is directed at genetically related organisms or when one can expect the favor to be returned. Therefore, evolutionary theorists such as Sober and Wilson have argued that we should revise Neo-Darwininian evolutionary theory. They argue that human altruism (...) evolved through group selection in which groups of altruists were naturally selected because they had a comparative advantage over other groups. Wilson and Sober’s hypothesis attracted followers but is rejected by most of their peers. The heated debate between advocates and critics of group selection often suffers from a lack of conceptual clarity. In response, I set out to clearly distinguish ‘genetic’ from ‘cultural’ group selection and argue that the latter does not face the potentially debilitating problems plaguing the former. I defend the claim that human altruistic dispositions evolved through cultural group selection and gene-culture coevolution and offer empirical evidence in support. I also argue that actual altruistic behavior often goes beyond the kind of behavior humans have evolved to display. Conscious and voluntary reasoning processes, I show, have an important role in altruistic behavior. This is often overlooked in the scientific literature on human altruism. (shrink)

Kin selection and group selection were once seen as competing explanatory hypotheses but now tend to be seen as equivalent ways of describing the same basic idea. Yet this ‘equivalence thesis’ seems not to have brought proponents of kin selection and group selection any closer together. This may be because the equivalence thesis merely shows the equivalence of two statistical formalisms without saying anything about causality. W.D. Hamilton was the first to derive an equivalence result of this type. Yet Hamilton (...) was aware of its limitations, and saw that, while illuminating, it papered over some biologically important distinctions. Attending to these distinctions leads to the concept of ‘K-G space’, which helps us see where the biological disagreements between proponents of kin selection and group selection really lie. (shrink)

The role of genetic relatedness in social evolution has recently come under critical attention. These arguments are here critically analyzed, both theoretically and empirically. It is argued that when the conceptual structure of the theory of natural selection is carefully taken into account, genetic relatedness can be seen to play an indispensable role in the evolution of both facultative and advanced eusociality. Although reviewing the empirical evidence concerning the evolution of eusociality reveals that relatedness does not play a role in (...) the initial appearance of helper phenotypes, this follows simply from the fact that natural selection – of which relatedness is a necessary component – does not play a causal role in the origin of any traits. Further, separating two logically distinct elements of causal explanation – necessity and sufficiency – explains why the debate lingers on: although relatedness plays a necessary role in the evolution of helping and advanced eusociality, relatedness alone is not sufficient for their appearance. Therefore, if the relatedness variable in a given data set is held at a uniformly high value, then it indeed may turn out that other factors occupy a more prominent role. However, this does not change the fact that high relatedness functions as a necessary background condition for the evolution of advanced eusociality. (shrink)

El famoso hombre hormiga E.O. Wilson siempre ha sido uno de mis héroes-no sólo un biólogo sobresaliente, sino una de las pequeñas y desvanecida minoría de intelectuales que al menos se atreve a insinuar la verdad sobre nuestra naturaleza que otros no logran captar, o en la medida en que do comprender, evitar de manera estudiosa la conveniencia política. Tristemente, está terminando su larga carrera en una moda más sóla como parte de un ataque ignorante y arrogante a la ciencia (...) motivado al menos en parte por el fervor religioso de sus colegas de Harvard. Muestra las consecuencias viles cuando las universidades aceptan dinero de grupos religiosos, las revistas científicas están tan asombradas por los grandes nombres que evitan la revisión de pares adecuada, y cuando los egos se les permite salir de control. Nos lleva a la naturaleza de la evolución, los fundamentos de la metodología científica, cómo las matemáticas se relacionan con la ciencia, lo que constituye una teoría, e incluso qué actitudes a la religión y la generosidad son apropiadas cuando nos acercamos inexorablemente al colapso de la industria Civilización. Aquellos que deseen un marco completo hasta la fecha para el comportamiento humano de la moderna dos sistemas punto de vista puede consultar mi libros Talking Monkeys 3ª ed (2019), Estructura Logica de Filosofia, Psicología, Mente y Lenguaje en Ludwig Wittgenstein y John Searle 2a ed (2019), Suicidio pela Democracia 4ª ed (2019), La Estructura Logica del Comportamiento Humano (2019), The Logical Structure de la Conciencia (2019, Entender las Conexiones entre Ciencia, Filosofía, Psicología, Religión, Política y Economía y Delirios Utópicos Suicidas en el siglo 21 5ª ed (2019), Observaciones sobre Imposibilidad, Incompletitud, Paraconsistencia, Indecidibilidad, Aleatoriedad, Computabilidad, Paradoja e Incertidumbre en Chaitin, Wittgenstein, Hofstadter, Wolpert, Doria, da Costa, Godel, Searle, Rodych Berto, Floyd, Moyal-Sharrock y Yanofsky y otras. (shrink)

Famoso formiga-homem E.O. Wilson sempre foi um dos meus heróis-não só um excelente biólogo, mas um dos minúsculos e desaparecendo minoria de intelectuais que, pelo menos, se atreve a sugerir a verdade sobre a nossa natureza que os outros não conseguem entender, ou na medida em que do agarrar , de forma a evitar a conveniência política. Infelizmente, ele está terminando sua longa carreira em uma moda mais sórdido como um partido para um ataque ignorante e arrogante sobre a ciência (...) motivada pelo menos em parte pelo fervor religioso de seus colegas de Harvard. Mostra as conseqüências vis quando as universidades aceitam o dinheiro dos grupos religiosos, as revistas da ciência são tão impressionado com por nomes grandes que evitam a revisão apropriada do par, e quando os egos são permitidos sair do controle. Leva-nos para a natureza da evolução, os fundamentos da metodologia científica, como a matemática se relaciona com a ciência, o que constitui uma teoria, e até mesmo as atitudes de religião e generosidade são apropriadas como nós inexoravelmente abordar o colapso da indústria da civilização. Aqueles que desejam um quadro até à data detalhado para o comportamento humano da opinião moderna dos dois sistemas consultar meu livros Falando Macacos 3ª Ed (2019), A Estrutura Lógica da Filosofia, Psicologia, Mente e Linguagem em Ludwig Wittgenstein e John Searle 2a Ed (2019), Suicídio Pela Democracia,4aEd(2019), Entendendo as Conexões entre Ciência, Filosofia, Psicologia, Religião, Política e Economia Artigos e Análises 2006-2019 (2019), Ilusões Utópicas Suicidas no 21St século 5a Ed (2019), A Estrutura Lógica do Comportamento Humano (2019), e A Estrutura Lógica da Consciência (2019) e outras. (shrink)

Does the Big History of life on Earth disclose a trajectory that has been driven by selection? If so, will the trajectory continue to apply into the future? This paper argues that such a trajectory exists, and examines some of its key implications. The most important consequence is that humanity can use the trajectory to guide how it evolves and adapts into the future. This is because the trajectory identifies a sequence of adaptations that will be favoured by selection. If (...) humanity intentionally evolves its social systems and psychological capacities so that they follow the trajectory, humanity can avoid negative selection and instead survive and thrive indefinitely into the future. This would enable humanity to make a positive contribution to the future evolution of life in the universe. But it turns out that immediate selection will not drive the evolution of life on Earth further along this trajectory. Instead, intentional action by humanity is necessary. It is as if the evolution of life on any planet is a developmental process that has a very unusual characteristic: evolution will continue to develop successfully beyond a certain point only if it produces a sentient organism that: (i) awakens to the possibility it is embedded in a developing process; (ii) realizes that this developing process will continue successfully only if it chooses to intentionally drive the process forward; and (iii) commits to doing whatever is necessary to achieve this. On this planet, humanity is that sentient organism. The existence of such a key evolutionary role for humanity is capable of providing humanity with meaning and purpose in a larger scheme of things. For individuals who commit to driving the process forward, the nature of the trajectory has immediate consequences for what they should do with their lives, here and now. (shrink)

Various results show the ‘formal equivalence’ of kin and group selectionist methodologies, but this does not preclude there being a real and useful distinction between kin and group selection processes. I distinguish individual- and population-centred approaches to drawing such a distinction, and I proceed to develop the latter. On the account I advance, the differences between kin and group selection are differences of degree in the structural properties of populations. A spatial metaphor (‘K-G space’) provides a useful framework for thinking (...) about these differences: kin and group selection may be conceptualized as large, overlapping regions of K-G space. I then consider some implications of the account, defend it from possible objections, and further argue that the structural features characteristic of both kin and group selection may recur at multiple levels of biological organization. 1 Introduction2 Equivalence Results and Their Limitations2.1 An example of an equivalence result2.2 Limitations3 Individual- and Population-Centred Approaches4 Two Influences: Hamilton and Godfrey-Smith5 K and G5.1 K5.2 G5.3 K-G space6 The rb ≠ 0 Requirement7 Levels of Organization8 The Key Substantive Questions. (shrink)

The ‘managed-metabolism’ hypothesis suggests that a ‘cooperation barrier’ must be overcome if self-producing chemical organizations are to undergo the transition from non-life to life. This dynamical barrier prevents un-managed autocatalytic networks of molecular species from individuating into complex, cooperative organizations. The barrier arises because molecular species that could otherwise make significant cooperative contributions to the success of an organization will often not be supported within the organization, and because side reactions and other ‘free-riding’ processes will undermine cooperation. As a result, (...) the barrier seriously impedes the emergence of individuality, complex functionality and the transition to life. This barrier is analogous to the cooperation barrier that also impedes the emergence of complex cooperation at all levels of living organization. As has been shown at other levels of organization, the barrier can be overcome comprehensively by appropriate ‘management’. Management implements a system of evolvable constraints that can overcome the cooperation barrier by ensuring that beneficial co-operators are supported within the organization and by suppressing free-riders. In this way, management can control and manipulate the chemical processes of a collectively autocatalytic organization, producing novel processes that serve the interests of the organization as a whole and that could not arise and persist in an un-managed chemical organization. Management self-organizes because it is able to capture some of the benefits that are produced when its interventions promote cooperation, thereby enhancing productivity. Selection will therefore favour the emergence of managers that take over and manage chemical organizations so as to overcome the cooperation barrier. The managed-metabolism hypothesis demonstrates that if management is to overcome the cooperation barrier comprehensively, its interventions must be digitally coded. In this way, the hypothesis accounts for the two-tiered structure of all living cells in which a digitally-coded genetic apparatus manages an analogically-informed metabolism.GraphicalOpen image in new window. (shrink)

The debate over group selection shows no signs of abating. If existent, group selection is likely to have significantly reinforced prosocial and altruistic behavior. This article is theoretical and argues that there have been some major lacunae in the debate as concerns humans. The traits that are most uniquely and universally human—such as prolonged rearing of dependent offspring, the family, large-scale, tribal networks, and cultural-linguistic diversity and exclusivity—have been largely overlooked. These most salient and mutually reinforcing human specifics vastly increased (...) individuals' stake in and commitment to ancestral tribal groups. Tribal members were in the same boat, and risked massive fitness loss if it were sunk. This suggests that group selection existed and was much stronger among humans than among any other animal species. (shrink)

This book puts multilevel selection theory into a much needed historical perspective. This is achieved by discussing multilevel selection in the first half of the twentieth century, the reasons for the energetic rejection of Wynne-Edwards’ group selectionist stance in the 1960s, Elisabeth Lloyd’s contribution to the units of selection debate, Price’s hierarchical equation and its possible interpretations and, finally, species selection in macroevolutionary contexts. Another idea also seems to emerge from these studies; namely, that perhaps a more sure-footed position for (...) multilevel selection theory would be acquired if we were to show a renewed interest in 'old group selection', i.e. in scenarios in which the differential reproduction of the groups themselves affects the frequencies of either individual-level or group-level traits. This book will be of interest to philosophers and historians of biology, as well as to theoretically inclined biologists who have an interest in multilevel selection theory. (shrink)

HRG has been criticized for being an ‘empty statement’ or tautology, for failing to yield predictions, and for failing to yield causal explanations of change. There is some justification for these charges, yet they do not undermine the value of HRG as an organizing framework. In response to the ‘tautology’ complaint, we should admit that HRG is tautology-like, in that it avoids detailed dynamical assumptions. But this is an advantage in an organizing framework, because it ensures its compatibility with a (...) wide range of more detailed models. In response to the ‘prediction’ complaint, we should concede that HRG is not very useful for prediction, but the role of an organizing framework is not predictive. In response to the ‘causal explanation’ complaint, this chapter argues that HRG, by organizing our thinking about ultimate causes, generates understanding of those causes. It also compares favourably to other possible organizing frameworks. (shrink)

This chapter provides an introduction to the book. Some brief background on the aims and history of social evolution theory is followed by a brief discussion of Ernst Mayr’s proximate-ultimate distinction. There follows a short overview of the book as a whole. Part I of the book ‘Foundations’, aims to construct a coherent picture of the conceptual structure of social evolution theory, a picture that distinguishes the different explanatory roles of three distinct conceptual innovations due to W. D. Hamilton that (...) are often run together: Hamilton’s rule, kin selection, and inclusive fitness. Part II of the book, ‘Extensions’, turns to the ways in which recent expansions in the explanatory domain of social evolution theory have generated new conceptual challenges. (shrink)

From mitochondria to meerkats, the natural world is full of spectacular examples of social behaviour. In the early 1960s Bill Hamilton changed the way we think about how such behaviour evolves. He introduced three key innovations - now known as Hamilton's rule, kin selection, and inclusive fitness - which have been enormously influential, but which remain the subject of fierce controversy. Hamilton's pioneering work kick-started a research program now known as social evolution theory. This is a book about the philosophical (...) foundations and future prospects of that program. Part I, "Foundations", is a careful exposition and defence of Hamilton's ideas, with a few modifications along the way. In Part II, "Extensions", Jonathan Birch shows how these ideas can be applied to phenomena including cooperation in micro-organisms, cooperation among the cells of a multicellular organism, and culturally evolved cooperation in the earliest human societies. Birch argues that real progress can be made in understanding microbial evolution, evolutionary transitions, and human evolution by viewing them through the lens of social evolution theory, provided the theory is interpreted with care and adapted where necessary. The Philosophy of Social Evolution places social evolution theory on a firm philosophical footing and sets out exciting new directions for further work. (shrink)

Queller’s version of Hamilton’s rule (HRG), derived from the Price equation, states that the mean breeding value for a social character increases if and only if _rb_ > _c_, where _r_ is the coefficient of relatedness between social partners, _b_ is the benefit conferred on recipients, and _c_ is the cost incurred by actors. The value of HRG lies in its ability to provide an organizing framework for social evolution theory, helping us to interpret, classify, and compare more detailed models (...) of particular scenarios. HRG does this by allowing us to classify causal explanations of positive change by their commitments regarding the sign of _rb_ and _c_. This leads to a four-part taxonomy of explanations, comprising indirect fitness explanations, direct fitness explanations, hybrid explanations, and wholly or partially non-selective explanations. There are plausible instances of all four categories in the natural world. (shrink)

As Hamilton observed, the stability of cooperation within clonal groups of cells is no mystery, since the cells’ inclusive fitness interests are aligned. However, the process of social group transformation, by means of which a social group of cells is transformed into a multicellular individual with a division of labour among multiple cell types, remains mysterious. In both multicellular organisms and eusocial insects, group size and the number of specialized types are closely linked. As Bourke has argued, positive feedback is (...) likely to be crucial in explaining the relationship between size and complexity, and a social perspective on the organism helps us understand this feedback loop. This chapter proposes an expanded feedback loop in which the relationship between group size and specialization is mediated by the degree of redundancy (which may be either passive or active) in task structures. (shrink)

Social behaviour is widespread in the microbial world, yet social evolution theory was mostly developed with multicellular animals in mind. One difference between multicellular organisms and microbes is the prevalence of mobile genetic elements, such as plasmids, in microbial populations. Plasmids are often implicated in the production of so-called public goods, and relatedness may be at the heart of this phenomenon. However, gene mobility introduces a temporal aspect to relatedness: because genotypes can change over the life cycle, two bacteria may (...) share a gene at one time point, but not at some earlier or later time point. This chapter argues that the best concept of relatedness in this context is a diachronic concept that captures the association between actor genotypes at the moment of gene expression and recipient genotypes at the end of the life cycle. (shrink)

Hamilton introduced two conceptions of social fitness, which he termed neighbour-modulated fitness and inclusive fitness, and he argued that the two concepts are equivalent. This argument relies on two assumptions—actor’s control and additivity—that can be justified as approximations under ‘_δ_-weak selection’, which is selection on tiny differences between the mutant and the wild type. The assumption of _δ_-weak selection stems from a methodological stance that takes cumulative adaptation to be the explanatory target of social evolution research, together with an empirical (...) commitment to a gradualist picture of how cumulative adaptation arises. In a process of gradual, cumulative adaptation, short-term change can be calculated using either fitness concept, but inclusive fitness has a special role to play as the criterion for improvement and the standard for optimality. (shrink)

Hamilton classified social behaviours by the sign of their effects on the reproductive success of the actor and the recipient, leading to a four-part schema that categorizes behaviour as altruistic, selfish, mutually beneficial, or spiteful. While broadly endorsing Hamilton’s approach, this chapter argues that we should categorize social behaviour in terms of the selection processes that have maintained the behaviour in recent evolutionary history. Given its close affinity with a recent history theory of function, this approach faces objections that parallel (...) the well-known objections to that theory, but parallel responses are also available. This chapter further argues that the classification of an action should be (i) strategy-relative and (ii) task-relative. (shrink)

Humans often set aside their own self-interest to help others and punish free riders, even when interacting with strangers. To explain the origin of these ‘broad-scope prosocial preferences’, we should consider the processes of cultural evolution that might have acted in early human populations. Two types of cultural selection can be distinguished: CS 1, in which cultural differences between individuals cause differences in their reproductive success; and CS 2, in which cultural differences between individuals cause differences in their ‘cultural fitness’. (...) This chapter proposes, speculatively, that human social evolution involved a gradual decoupling of cultural fitness from reproductive success. A cultural version of Hamilton’s rule, in which the coefficient of genetic relatedness is replaced by a coefficient of cultural relatedness, provides a helpful organizing framework for thinking about the evolution of social behaviour by CS 1, and leads to a ‘cultural relatedness hypothesis’ regarding the origins of human prosociality. (shrink)

In group-structured populations in which some other assumptions are satisfied, kin and group selectionist methods provide formally equivalent conditions for change. However, this only shows an equivalence between two statistical methodologies, and this is compatible with there being a real, causal distinction between kin and group selection processes. This chapter pursues a Hamilton-inspired, population-centred approach to drawing that distinction, on which the differences between kin and group selection are differences of degree in the structural properties of populations. The relevant properties (...) are _K_, the overall degree to which genealogical kin interact differentially, and _G_, the overall degree to which the population contains stable, internally integrated, and externally isolated social groups. A spatial metaphor (‘_K_-_G_ space’) provides a useful framework for thinking about these differences. (shrink)

This chapter lists in brief some of the key claims for which the book has argued. It then provides a conclusion to the book, relating some of the book’s recurring themes to other debates in the philosophy of biology and sketching some directions for future work. The first theme is the relationship between statistics and causality, which is connected to the long-running clash between ‘statisticalist’ and ‘causalist’ interpretations of evolutionary theory. The second theme is the way in which inclusive fitness (...) synthesizes the organism-centred and gene-centred perspectives on evolution, pointing the way towards a Hamiltonian approach to culture that may offer a novel synthesis of agent-centred and meme-centred approaches to cultural change. The third theme is the conceptual connection, due to the importance of horizontal transmission in both cases, between genetic evolution in microbes and cultural evolution in humans. (shrink)

The concept of adaptation is pivotal to modern evolutionary thinking, but it has long been the subject of controversy, especially in respect of the relative roles of selection versus constraints in explaining the traits of organisms. This paper tackles a different problem for the concept of adaptation: its interpretation in light of multilevel selection theory. In particular, I arbitrate a dispute that has broken out between the proponents of rival perspectives on multilevel adaptations. Many experts now say that multilevel and (...) kin selection views are mathematically equivalent to one another—that the mathematical accounting of evolution can be carried out at any hierarchical level one chooses. But what does this formal equivalence imply - are they equivalent in other ways too? I show here that significant conceptual non-equivalence has survived: the two sides commit to different views regarding how much selection has to act at a level before we can call traits at that level adaptations; about whether policing mechanisms are adaptations, and about whether non-organisms can bear adaptations. (shrink)

Hayek’s social theory of evolution suggests that market liberal morality is adaptive for social groups. He justified the evolutionary superiority of market liberalism by asserting that groups operating under a market liberal morality would have a higher capacity to expand and reproduce than groups with alternative tribal moralities. Thus, market liberal groups would be favoured through cultural and genetic group selection. But in fact, market liberal morality reveals maladaptive tendencies and remains insufficiently powerful to create adaptive social groups. Hayek’s dismissal (...) of moral tribalism in favour of market liberal morality is found to underestimate the importance of tribal goals in the evolutionary system. (shrink)

In this paper, I identify two general positions with respect to the relationship between environment and natural selection. These positions consist in claiming that selective claims need and, respectively, need not be relativized to homogenous environments. I then show that adopting one or the other position makes a difference with respect to the way in which the effects of selection are to be measured in certain cases in which the focal population is distributed over heterogeneous environments. Moreover, I show that (...) these two positions lead to two different interpretations—the Pricean and contextualist ones—of a type of selection scenarios in which multiple groups varying in properties affect the change in the metapopulation mean of individual-level traits. Showing that these two interpretations stem from different attitudes towards environmental homogeneity allows me to argue: that, unlike the Pricean interpretation, the contextualist interpretation can only claim that drift or selection is responsible for the change in frequency of the focal trait in a given metapopulation if details about whether or not group formation is random are specified; that the traditional main objection against the Pricean interpretation—consisting in arguing that the latter takes certain side-effects of individual selection to be effects of group selection—is unconvincing. This leads me to suggest that the ongoing debate about which of the two interpretations is preferable should concentrate on different issues than previously thought. (shrink)

The notion of structure of evolution is proposed to capture what it means to say that two situations exhibit the same or similar constellations of factors affecting evolution. The key features of holobiont evolution and the hologenome theory are used to define a holobiont structure of evolution. Finally, Cultural Group Selection, a set of hypotheses regarding the evolution of human cognition, is shown to match the holobiont structure closely though not perfectly.

A review of the book Debating Darwin, by Robert J. Richards and Michael Ruse.

Do multi-level selection explanations of the evolution of social traits deepen the understanding provided by single-level explanations? Central to the former is a mathematical theorem, the multi-level Price decomposition. I build a framework through which to understand the explanatory role of such non-empirical decompositions in scientific practice. Applying this general framework to the present case places two tasks on the agenda. The first task is to distinguish the various ways of suppressing within-collective variation in fitness, and moreover to evaluate their (...) biological interest. I distinguish four such ways: increasing retaliatory capacity, homogenising assortment, and collapsing either fitness structure or character distribution to a mean value. The second task is to discover whether the third term of the Price decomposition measures the effect of any of these hypothetical interventions. On this basis I argue that the multi-level Price decomposition has explanatory value primarily when the sharing-out of collective resources is `subtractable'. Thus its value is more circumscribed than its champions Sober and Wilson (1998) suppose. (shrink)

In “Some Criticism of the Contextual Approach, and a Few Proposals” in Biological Theory, Brian McLoone discusses some of the points about the contextual approach that I made in a recent paper. Besides offering a reply to McLoone’s comments on my paper, in this article I show why McLoone’s discussion of the two main frameworks for thinking about group selection—the contextual and the Price approach—is partly misguided. In particular, I show that one of McLoone’s main arguments against the contextual approach (...) is missing the target and that one of his (and Elliott Sober’s) arguments in defense of the Price approach is flawed. Criticizing these arguments will help me present an entirely different picture than McLoone’s of the current status of multilevel selection theory. More precisely, I argue that the idea that we are dealing with “multilevel selection” in the type of multigroup cases in which the focal units are the individuals (and their traits) has recently come under threat. Finally, I discuss the ways in which this idea might be salvaged by appealing either to the contextual or to the Price approach. (shrink)

Nowak is (or was) a respected Harvard professor of mathematical biology with numerous well regarded publications. Sadly, he has chosen to launch an arrogant attack on science motivated by religious fervor. His recent actions show the evil consequences when universities accept money from religious groups, science journals are so awed by big names that they avoid proper peer review, and egos are permitted to get out of control. Most of this book is good, but it repeats the utterly misconceived attacks (...) on inclusive fitness in favor of group selection which he and his much more famous Harvard colleague E.O.Wilson have been making the last 5 years, so it is on that chapter of the book that I will concentrate. This takes us into the nature of evolution, the basics of scientific methodology, how math relates to science, what constitutes a law or a theory, and what attitudes to religion and generosity are appropriate as we inexorably approach the collapse of industrial civilization. -/- Those wishing a comprehensive up to date framework for human behavior from the modern two systems view may consult my book ‘The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle’ 2nd ed (2019). Those interested in more of my writings may see ‘Talking Monkeys--Philosophy, Psychology, Science, Religion and Politics on a Doomed Planet--Articles and Reviews 2006-2019 3rd ed (2019), The Logical Structure of Human Behavior (2019), and Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st Century 4th ed (2019). (shrink)

Famous ant-man E.O. Wilson has always been one of my heroes --not only an outstanding biologist, but one of the tiny and vanishing minority of intellectuals who at least dares to hint at the truth about our nature that others fail to grasp, or insofar as they do grasp, studiously avoid for of political expedience. Sadly, he is ending his long career in a most sordid fashion as a party to an ignorant and arrogant attack on science motivated at least (...) in part by religious fervor. It shows the vile consequences when universities accept money from religious groups, science journals are so awed by big names that they avoid proper peer review, and when egos are permitted to get out of control. It takes us into the nature of evolution, the basics of scientific methodology, how math relates to science, what constitutes a theory, and even what attitudes to religion and generosity are appropriate as we inexorably approach the collapse of industrial civilization. -/- Those wishing a comprehensive up to date framework for human behavior from the modern two systems view may consult my book ‘The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle’ 2nd ed (2019). Those interested in more of my writings may see ‘Talking Monkeys--Philosophy, Psychology, Science, Religion and Politics on a Doomed Planet--Articles and Reviews 2006-2019 3rd ed (2019), The Logical Structure of Human Behavior (2019), and Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st Century 4th ed (2019). (shrink)

Since Gintis is a senior economist and I have read some of his previous books with interest, I was expecting some more insights into behavior. Sadly he makes the dead hands of group selection and phenomenology into the centerpieces of his theories of behavior, and this largely invalidates the work. Worse, since he shows such bad judgement here, it calls into question all his previous work. The attempt to resurrect group selection by his friends at Harvard, Nowak and Wilson, a (...) few years ago was one of the major scandals in biology in the last decade, and I have recounted the sad story in my article ‘Altruism, Jesus and the End of the World—how the Templeton Foundation bought a Harvard Professorship and attacked Evolution, Rationality and Civilization -- A review of E.O. Wilson 'The Social Conquest of Earth' (2012) and Nowak and Highfield ‘SuperCooperators’ (2012).’ Unlike Nowak, Gintis does not seem to be motivated by religious fanaticism, but by the strong desire to generate an alternative to the grim realities of human nature, made easy by the (near universal) lack of understanding of basic human biology and blank slateism of behavioral scientists, other academics, and the general public. -/- Gintis rightly attacks (as he has many times before) economists, sociologists and other behavioral scientists for not having a coherent framework to describe behavior. Of course the framework needed to understand behavior is an evolutionary one. Unfortunately he fails to provide one himself (according to his many critics and I concur), and the attempt to graft the rotten corpse of group selection onto whatever economic and psychological theories he has generated in his decades of work, merely invalidates his entire project. Although Gintis makes a valiant effort to understand and explain the genetics, like Wilson and Nowak, he is far from an expert, and like them, the math just blinds him to the biological impossibilities and of course this is the norm in science. As Wittgenstein famously noted on the first page of Culture and Value “There is no religious denomination in which the misuse of metaphysical expressions has been responsible for so much sin as it has in mathematics.” -/- It has always been crystal clear that a gene that causes behavior which decreases its own frequency cannot persist, but this is the core of the notion of group selection. Furthermore, it has been well known and often demonstrated that group selection just reduces to inclusive fitness (kin selection), which, as Dawkins has noted, is just another name for evolution by natural selection. Like Wilson, Gintis has worked in this arena for about 50 years and still has not grasped it, but after the scandal broke, it took me only 3 days to find, read and understand the most relevant professional work, as detailed in my article. It is mind boggling to realize that Gintis and Wilson were unable to accomplish this in nearly half a century. -/- I discuss the errors of group selection and phenomenology that are the norm in academia as special cases of the near universal failure to understand human nature that are destroying America and the world. -/- Those who wish to read all my articles please consult the ebook here Philosophy, Human Nature and the Collapse of Civilization -- Articles and Reviews 2006-2016 by Michael Starks 662p (2016) -/- All of my papers and books have now been published in revised versions both in ebooks and in printed books. -/- Talking Monkeys: Philosophy, Psychology, Science, Religion and Politics on a Doomed Planet - Articles and Reviews 2006-2017 (2017) https://www.amazon.com/dp/B071HVC7YP. -/- The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle--Articles and Reviews 2006-2016 (2017) https://www.amazon.com/dp/B071P1RP1B. -/- Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st century: Philosophy, Human Nature and the Collapse of Civilization - Articles and Reviews 2006-2017 (2017) https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0711R5LGX -/- . (shrink)

Hamilton's theory of kin selection is the best-known framework for understanding the evolution of social behavior but has long been a source of controversy in evolutionary biology. A recent critique of the theory by Nowak, Tarnita, and Wilson sparked a new round of debate, which shows no signs of abating. In this overview, we highlight a number of conceptual issues that lie at the heart of the current debate. We begin by emphasizing that there are various alternative formulations of Hamilton's (...) rule, including a general version, which is always true; an approximate version, which assumes weak selection; and a special version, which demands other restrictive assumptions. We then examine the relationship between the neighbor-modulated fitness and inclusive fitness approaches to kin selection. Finally, we consider the often-strained relationship between the theories of kin and multilevel selection. (shrink)

In this paper I argue against the claim, recently put forward by some philosophers of biology and evolutionary biologists, that there can be two or more ontologically distinct levels of selection. I show by comparing the fitness of individuals with that of collectives of individuals in the same environment and over the same period of time – as required to decide if one or more levels of selection is acting in a population – that the selection of collectives is a (...) by-product of selection at the individual level; thus, talking about two or more levels of selection represents merely a different perspective on one and the same process. (shrink)

Flipping convention on its head, Eric Dietrich argues that science uncovers awe-inspiring, enduring mysteries, while religion, regarded as the source for such mysteries, is a biological phenomenon. Just like spoken language, Dietrich shows that religion is an evolutionary adaptation. Science is the source of perplexing yet beautiful mysteries, however natural the search for answers may be to human existence. _Excellent Beauty_ undoes our misconception of scientific inquiry as an executioner of beauty, making the case that science has won the battle (...) with religion so thoroughly it can now explain why religion persists. The book also draws deep lessons for human flourishing from the very existence of scientific mysteries. It is these latter wonderful, completely _public_ truths that constitute some strangeness in the proportion, revealing a universe worthy of awe and wonder. (shrink)