The Judith Butler Reader is a collection of writings that span her impressive career and trace her intellectual history. Judith Butler, author of influential books such as Gender Trouble, has built her international reputation as a theorist of power, gender, sexuality and identity Organized in active collaboration between Judith Butler and Sara Salih Collects together writings that span Butler’s impressive career as a critical philosopher, including selections from both well-known and lesser-known works Includes an introduction and editorial material to (...) assist students in their readings of theories that stand at the forefront of contemporary theoretical and political debates. (shrink)

A welcome addition to the Routledge Critical Thinkers series, Judith Butler is the first guidebook on this renowned feminist and queer theory scholar, which will help not only students of literary criticism but also students of law, sociology, philosophy, film and cultural studies. Examining Butler's work through a variety of contexts, including the formation of gender performativity, identity and subjecthood, Sarah Salih address Butler's crucial ideas on the gender agenda, the body, pornography, race, gay self-expression and power and psychoanalysis. (...) Concluding with an annotated bibliography, this book will be the ideal starting point for all new to Butler. (shrink)

Cite as: -/- Onder, O. (2025). Klinik Karar Destek Sistemleri Bağlamında Tıpta Yapay Zeka Kullanımında Etik Sorun Alanları (Publication No. 949041) [Doctoral dissertation, Istanbul University] YÖK Ulusal Tez Merkezi. -/- The Ethical Aspects of Artificial Intelligence Use in Medicine within the Context of Clinical Decision Support Systems -/- ABSTRACT The increasing use of artificial intelligence (AI) and health technologies in clinical practice will lead to significant transformations in the doctor-patient relationship. Accordingly, it is a critical necessity to investigate how this (...) relationship will change with the integration of AI and health technologies in general, and Clinical Decision Support Systems (CDSS) in particular, and to identify, analyze, and evaluate the ethical issues arising from this transformation. In response to this need, the present study aims to examine the relationship between the doctor, patient, and CDSS, focusing on the asymmetries within this relationship and the ethical dimensions of the principle of responsibility in CDSS-involved decisions. With the integration of CDSS into the doctor-patient relationship, a triadic relationship involving the doctor, patient, and CDSS is expected to gain prominence. From an ethical standpoint, this change must adopt a human-centered approach and be oriented towards enhancing patient well-being. In this context, the study defends, within a normative framework, that CDSS in the triadic clinic should function as a "care-optimizer". The concept of care optimization is elaborated in five main categories: quality of care, patient-centered care, decision-making processes, access and communication, and care practices. Following this, power and epistemic asymmetries emerging in the triadic clinic are examined through an asymmetry analysis grounded in relationalism, and the normative implications of these asymmetries on physician responsibility are evaluated. By analyzing the inherent and contingent dimensions of power asymmetry, along with the categorical and gradual forms of epistemic asymmetry, the study explores their effects on responsibility distribution in the context of meaningful human control and explainability. The theoretical foundation of this study is grounded in the postphenomenological theory of technological mediation, which emphasizes that technologies are not neutral tools but mediators shaping human experience. As a result, the study proposes a normative framework for a healthcare system that prioritizes patient well-being and develops a relational approach to address the complexities of responsibility distribution within the triadic clinic. -/- Key Words: Doctor-patient relationship, Artificial Intelligence Ethics, Clinical Decision Support Systems, responsibility, patient wellbeing -/- ÖZET Yapay zekâ (YZ) ve sağlık teknolojilerinin klinik uygulamalarda artarak kullanılması, hasta-hekim ilişkisinde önemli dönüşümlere yol açacaktır. Bu doğrultuda, genelde YZ’nin ve teknolojilerin, özelde ise Klinik Karar Destek Sistemleri’nin (KKDS) kliniğe entegrasyonuyla, hasta-hekim ilişkisinin nasıl değişeceğinin incelenmesi ve bu değişiklikten neşet eden etik sorunların tespiti, analizi ve değerlendirilmesi önemli bir ihtiyaçtır. Bu ihtiyaca binaen araştırmada, hasta-hekim ve KKDS ilişkisi ile bu ilişkideki asimetrilerin ve KKDS ile alınan kararlarda sorumluluk ilkesinin etik boyutlarının incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. KKDS’nin hasta-hekim ilişkisine eklenmesiyle hasta-hekim-KKDS olmak üzere üçlü (triadik) bir ilişkinin ön plana çıkacağı söylenebilir. Etik açıdan konuya yaklaşıldığında bu değişiklik insanı merkeze almalı ve buna bağlı olarak hasta refahını arttırmaya yönelik olmalıdır. Bu bağlamda, araştırmada KKDS’nin hasta-hekim ilişkisinde hastanın değerler sistemine odaklanarak, onun tedavi ve bakım kalitesini iyileştirici olması gerektiği normatif bir çerçevede savunulmuştur. Tedavi ve bakım iyileştirme konsepti; bakım kalitesi, hasta odaklı bakım, karar verme süreçleri, erişim ve iletişim uygulamaları gibi kategorilerle detaylandırılmıştır. Ardından, ilişkiselcilik temelinde bir yaklaşım olarak sunulan asimetri analizi ile triadik klinikte ortaya çıkan güç asimetrisi ve epistemik asimetriler kapsamlı bir şekilde incelenmiş ve asimetrilerin hekimin sorumluluğu üzerindeki normatif etkileri değerlendirilmiştir. Güç asimetrisinin içkin ve olumsal boyutları ile epistemik asimetrilerin kategorik ve tedrici görünümleri analiz edilerek; bu asimetrilerin anlamlı insan kontrolü ve açıklanabilirlik bağlamında sorumluluk dağıtımına etkileri analiz edilmiştir. Tüm bu çalışmaların teorik genel çerçevesi olarak, postfenomenolojinin - teknolojilerin nötral araçlar olmadığı, aksine insan tecrübesini şekillendiren aracılar olduğunu savunan - teknolojik aracılık teorisi benimsenmiştir. Bu çalışmanın neticesinde hasta refahını ön planda tutan bir sağlık sistemi için normatif bir çerçeve sunulmuş ve sağlık hizmetlerinde sorumluluk dağıtımındaki karmaşıklıkları çözmeye yönelik ilişkisel bir yaklaşım geliştirilmiştir. -/- Anahtar Kelimeler: Hasta-hekim ilişkisi, Yapay Zekâ Etiği, Klinik Karar Destek Sistemleri, sorumluluk, hasta refahı -/- . (shrink)

The integration of new technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) into healthcare has initiated profound changes in clinical practice, reshaping not only clinical workflows but the relational structure of care itself. Among the most significant developments is the transformation of the traditional doctor–patient dyad into a doctor–patient–technology triad. Philosophical studies of technology, especially postphenomenological research, argue that technologies should not be understood as neutral tools but as mediators of perception and action. Building on this perspective, we argue that ethical evaluation (...) must move beyond description toward a normative orientation for understanding how such mediation reshapes care relations. To this end, we draw on postphenomenological theory of technological mediation in relation to contemporary clinical practices and develop a normative evaluative framework grounded in patient wellbeing, understood as an emergent, relational quality of care. Rather than deriving evaluative categories from a single tradition, the framework integrates insights from quality-of-care scholarship and care-ethical perspectives, informed by relational accounts of clinical practice. It operationalizes this orientation across five domains (care quality, patient-centeredness, decision-making, access and communication, and care practices) understood as relational sites where technological mediation can enhance or compromise care. Using clinical decision support systems (CDSS) as an analytically demanding test case, we introduce the concept of the care optimizer as a descriptive-normative category identifying technologies that structure the conditions under which care unfolds. By anchoring evaluation in patient wellbeing and situating technological mediation within a normative horizon, the framework translates postphenomenological insights into ethically actionable guidance and aims to ensure that digital health innovations reinforce, rather than undermine, the moral commitments of medicine. (shrink)

The rapid digitalization of healthcare—from telemedicine and Artificial Intelligence (AI)-driven diagnostics to wearable biosensors—has profoundly disrupted traditional norms of patient confidentiality. Classical privacy theories, anchored in physical co-presence and individual control, struggle to address the ethical challenges posed by opaque, persistent, and infrastructural data exposures in digital clinical environments. This study employs a theoretical-conceptual methodology to develop a multidimensional privacy framework responsive to the spatial and technological complexities of the digital clinic. Drawing from Edward T. Hall’s proxemics theory and the (...) concept of cyberspace, we reinterpret interpersonal spatial zones (intimate, personal, social, public) in cyberspace. We introduce “cyberspatial privacy” as a transversal dimension that modulates privacy expectations across physical and digital layers. A hypothetical case—“Patient X,” a woman undergoing hybrid care—is used to demonstrate the framework’s practical utility in ethical analysis. The proposed framework reconceptualizes privacy as a dynamic continuum structured by both spatial proximity and digital mediation. By mapping risks across four proxemic zones and overlaying a cyberspatial dimension, the model reveals how privacy breaches differ not only in kind but in normative weight. For instance, biometric data collected by wearables (intimate zone) carries higher ethical risk than metadata exposed via public interfaces. The case of Patient X illustrates how classical theories fail to capture this gradient, while the new model enables zone-sensitive assessments of vulnerability, exposure, and trust. This framework advances the ethical understanding of privacy in digitally mediated healthcare by offering a granular, relational, and context-aware approach. It supports clinicians, designers, and policymakers in tailoring privacy safeguards to the spatial and digital contours of care. By reframing privacy as a condition of relational co-presence rather than isolated consent, this model promotes ethically robust design and governance in the era of cyber-augmented medicine. (shrink)

For decades, metaontological debates have been structured around paradigmatic examples: Sherlock Holmes for fictional objects and the number 7 for abstract objects. These examples, while useful, are philosophically “safe” and historically entrenched. However, 21st-century technology creates entities that defy these clean categorizations. In this paper, I argue that the digital twin—a dynamic virtual model of a physical system—serves as a useful contemporary test case for metaontological reflection. It brings together the problematic features of both fiction and abstract objects while introducing (...) a new, critical dimension: causal efficacy. This novel constellation of attributes forces refinements in debates between Quineanism, fictionalism, Meinongianism, and grounding-based approaches. Analysis shows that digital twins strengthen Quinean indispensability arguments, challenge fictionalist and Meinongian views due to their active role in the causal order, and are best elucidated as dependent entities through grounding relations. By applying these frameworks to digital twins, I aim not to declare any single framework victorious but to show where different theories must extend, qualify, or recalibrate their core commitments when confronted with this kind of entity. The goal is to demonstrate how ontological inquiry can illuminate emerging technologies—including their normative and institutional dimensions—and how these technologies can, in turn, reinvigorate metaontological theory. (shrink)

This chapter consists of two main sections; the first comprises the epistemological analysis regarding the source of knowledge used in clinics, knowledge representation and management, inference capacity and decision-making, and the second section discusses the ethical problems caused by the epistemological differences between CDSS-integrated clinics, and conventional clinics, and normative concepts such as moral responsibility, attribution of responsibility and distribution of responsibility are briefly examined. It has been argued that to understand and evaluate the ethical problems that arise in CDSS-integrated (...) clinics, it is necessary to understand and clearly reveal the epistemological features and differences between the two types of clinical services. (shrink)

Artificial intelligence (AI) research has historically followed a cyclical trajectory of optimism and skepticism, shaped largely by its interaction with market forces. From its conceptual foundations in the mid-20th century to contemporary breakthroughs in machine learning and deep learning, AI’s progress has been closely linked to economic expectations and funding availability. This dynamic relationship significantly impacts sectors such as healthcare, where digitalization efforts are accelerating. While healthcare was initially slow to adopt AI compared to finance or marketing, recent advances in (...) data processing and the pressures of global health crises have positioned it as a critical domain for AI integration. However, rapid digitalization and commercialization introduce profound ethical challenges, including privacy breaches, algorithmic bias, accountability gaps, and threats to autonomy. Current regulatory frameworks and ethical guidelines, such as those issued by WHO and national AI strategies, offer important principles but often lack enforceable mechanisms. This article argues that a proactive approach—embedding ethical principles during design through “Ethics by Design”—is essential for sustainable and trustworthy AI in healthcare. By aligning technological development with human values from inception, this approach mitigates risks before they manifest, ensuring that AI-driven healthcare systems serve both innovation and societal well-being. (shrink)

Abstract Telemedicine, often referred to as e-health or telehealth, has evolved from early communication technologies to a key component of modern healthcare delivery. Recent advances, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, have transformed patient-physician interactions, introducing opportunities for remote care while challenging established clinical and ethical norms. This article examines the ethical implications of telemedicine within five key domains: reconstruction of the patient-physician relationship, privacy and confidentiality, patient autonomy, beneficence and non-maleficence, and justice in access to care. While telemedicine can improve (...) accessibility and continuity of care, it raises concerns about reduced physical interaction, data security, and maintaining trust. Moreover, issues related to informed consent, digital literacy, and technological dependency highlight risks to autonomy and equity. The paper argues that these changes necessitate revisiting traditional ethical principles and adapting normative frameworks to ensure patient-centered care in an increasingly digital health ecosystem. (shrink)

Bu makale, çağdaş teknolojileri post-fenomenolojik bir bakış açısıyla inceleyerek, teknolojilerin tarafsız araçlar değil, insan deneyimini, algısını ve eylemini birlikte oluşturan aktif aracılar olduğunu savunmaktadır. Teknolojiye yönelik üç felsefi yaklaşımı (enstrümantalizm, determinizm ve teknolojik aracılık) özetledikten sonra, post-fenomenolojinin insan-teknoloji ilişkilerini dinamik, ilişkisel ve sürekli olarak birlikte şekillendiren bir yapı olarak nasıl yeniden kavramsallaştırdığını vurgulamaktadır. Ultrason görüntüleme, robotik cerrahi, sağlık izleme sistemleri, navigasyon cihazları ve sosyal medya platformları gibi örneklerle, teknolojilerin görme, hareket etme, sorumluluk ve sosyal etkileşim pratiklerini nasıl dönüştürdüğünü göstermektedir. Bu (...) aracılıklar yalnızca bireysel deneyimleri değil, aynı zamanda kültürel normları, toplumsal yapıları ve değer oluşumlarını da etkilemektedir. Makale ayrıca değer hassas tasarımla da ilgilenerek, etik ve toplumsal değerleri dışsal ekler olarak ele almak yerine tasarım sürecine entegre etmenin gerekliliğini vurgulamaktadır. Sonuç olarak çalışma, teknolojilerin yaşam dünyasının ayrılmaz bileşenleri haline geldiğini ve anlam, eylem ve toplumsallık kalıplarını yeniden şekillendirdiğini savunmaktadır. Postfenomenoloji, bu nedenle teknolojiyi "bir araçtan daha fazlası" olarak anlamak için sağlam bir çerçeve sunarak, hem insan varoluşunu hem de toplumsal dünyayı şekillendirmedeki rolünü ortaya koyar. (shrink)

This article advances the debate on artificial intelligence (AI) use in education by moving beyond the mechanistic notion of “prompt engineering” and the human-centered focus of prevailing AI-literacy frameworks. I introduce prompting (l)iteracy, a sociotechnical capacity that is simultaneously iterative (built through cycles of prompt revision and reflection) and critical (attuned to the economic logics, linguistic hierarchies, and distributed agencies that shape AI dialogue). Four theoretical lenses scaffold the concept: (1) post-Fordist political economy explains how each prompt exploits commodified linguistic (...) labor embedded in large language models; (2) Bourdieu's linguistic-capital thesis illuminates the social inequities likely reproduced by differential prompting proficiency; (3) Latour's actor–network theory highlights non-human agency, as humans do not only prompt AI, but they are also prompted by AI; and (4) de Certeau's tactics foreground users' creative appropriations and resistances. Vignettes of AI interactions illustrate these dimensions and expose the twin pitfalls of techno-solutionism and techno-pessimism. I argue that future research must abandon self-report surveys in favor of authentic, trace-centered mixed methods that record authentic prompt–response logs and machine telemetry. Prompting (l)iteracy thus offers a richer analytic lens for understanding, and ultimately mitigating, AI-mediated educational inequality. (shrink)

The sense of shame is part of human nature. What, then, is the role and significance of such a particular sensation, one that causes mental anxiety in a sick person’s weakest and the most vulnerable state? We know from historical documents going back as far as ancient Greece and Egypt that respecting patient privacy should be regarded as a moral duty for physicians in charge of treatment. However much today’s healthcare may have changed compared to centuries past, we note that (...) patient privacy has not lost its importance. In the current healthcare system, digital recording of private information and images enables others, in principle, to access these personal data quite easily. While we cannot reject the advantages offered by modern medicine, we need to consider how to design a healthcare system that respects patient privacy. What should be the standards of privacy in emergency services where urgent decisions and interventions have to be made? How should we guarantee patient privacy during medical education? The chapters of this book approach questions like these from the perspectives of different disciplines. The writings illustrate the increasing complexity of patient privacy issues in modern healthcare systems, particularly the growing difficulty to protect confidential data. At the same time, we can observe that patients are becoming more aware of their rights and their sensitivity in this area has increased. In our opinion, an approach that requires us to choose between the two values –health and privacy – would be wrong. Therefore, the question we should focus on is: “what kind of healthcare system should be developed to ensure the greatest respect for humans’ natural right to privacy?” If we want to answer this question and find sustainable solutions for these problems, it is crucial to use a multidisciplinary approach. From this perspective, the present volume is a first contribution to be published in Turkey to pursue this aim, including articles offered from various disciplines. (shrink)

The growing planetary poly-crisis—marked by climate change, ecological degradation, and planetary health inequities—necessitates a fundamental transformation in healthcare systems. This paper examines the historical progression of health systems from public health to planetary health, where human well-being is understood within the limits of planetary boundaries. Planetary health provides a framework for sustainable health systems that reduce disease burden, optimize care delivery, and decarbonize healthcare operations. Within this context, artificial intelligence (AI) emerges as a transformative tool for addressing healthcare sustainability. AI (...) applications offer significant potential to optimize resource use, improve preventive care, and enable circular economies in healthcare, thereby facilitating the transition toward planetary health. However, AI poses environmental challenges, including high energy consumption and resource-intensive development processes. To ensure its long-term viability, AI must align with sustainability principles by minimizing its ecological footprint while enhancing ecological integrity and social justice. This paper contributes to the literature in three key ways: (1) it briefly outlines the evolution of health systems toward planetary health, contextualizing the role of sustainability; (2) it presents emerging AI applications that support healthcare sustainability within the planetary health paradigm; and (3) it applies a structural–ethical approach—building on the work of Bolte and van Wynsberghe—to situate AI within the broader socio-technical, institutional, and ecological systems of healthcare, moving beyond second-wave AI ethics’ focus on isolated artifacts and design-level principles. By positioning AI as both a solution and a subject of scrutiny, this study advances the discourse on AI’s potential for planetary health while critically examining its alignment with long-term sustainability goals. (shrink)

Recent advances in neutrosophic lattice theory have highlighted its potential to model uncertainty, indeterminacy, and inconsistency more effectively than classical and intuitionistic fuzzy approaches. Building upon foundational studies that introduced neutrosophic lattices and their extensions through soft structures, concept lattices, triangular norms, and lattice-valued neutrosophic sets, this study contributes to the growing body of research on neutrosophic ideals. We introduce and investigate several key notions in the context of lattices, including neutrosophic prime ideals, prime neutrosophic ideals, neutrosophic 2-absorbing ideals, 2-absorbing (...) neutrosophic ideals, neutrosophic primary ideals, and primary neutrosophic ideals. A special focus is placed on the characterization of neutrosophic 2-absorbing primary ideals, accompanied by an analysis of the transitions among these concepts and their interrelationships with traditional lattice ideals. Furthermore, these structures are examined within lattices formed by Cartesian products, offering new perspectives on their behavior in complex settings. (shrink)

In this study, we investigate the notion of an intuitionistic fuzzy prime ideal and intuitionistic fuzzy weakly 2-absorbing ideal of a lattice as an expansion of a notion of a weakly prime ideal. Then, we characterize the concept of intuitionistic fuzzy weakly 2-absorbing ideals and intuitionistic fuzzy weakly primary ideals and give some results. Finally, we suggest the concept of an intuitionistic fuzzy weakly 2-absorbing ideals in a product of lattices.

Amaç: Kanserle yaşayan bireylerin (KYB) bakımında, resmiyette görünür olmayan ve çoğunlukla herhangi bir profesyonel donanıma sahip olmayan, ama sürecin başından sonuna, hasta bireye eşlik eden bakım verenler kritik öneme sahiptir. Baş etmesi zor bir hastalık olan kanserle mücadele eden bireylerin bakımında, bakım verenler fiziksel, zihinsel ve sosyal birtakım zorluklarla karşılaşmaktadır. Bu araştırma, KYB’lere bakım veren, yakınlarının karşılaştıkları zorlukları gündeme getirmeyi ve ihtimam etiği perspektifinden, bakım verenlerin bakımına yönelik öneriler sunmayı amaçlamaktadır. Gereç ve Yöntem: Bu araştırma tanımlayıcı ve kesitsel olup araştırmanın (...) evreni Marmara Üniversitesi Pendik Eğitim ve Araştırma Hastanesi (MÜPEAH) Onkoloji kliniğinde takip edilen, 15 Mart-5 Nisan tarihleri arasında kemoterapi ünitesine ve servis hizmetlerine başvuran KYB’lerin bakım veren yakınlarıdır. KYB’lere bakım verenlerin umutsuzluk derecelerini tespit etmek ve bunu etkileyen faktörleri ölçmek için, veri toplama aracı olarak; sosyodemografik sorular, bakım alan bireyin hastalık derecesine yönelik sorular ve Beck Umutsuzluk Ölçeği sorularından oluşan bir anket elden dağıtılmıştır. Anket bakım verene yönelik sosyodemografik sorular 8, KYB’nin hastalığının durumu ile ilgili sorular 7, Beck Umutsuzluk Ölçeği 20 olmak üzere 35 sorudan oluşmaktadır ve yaklaşık 10 dakikada tamamlanmaktadır. Elde edilen veriler önce Microsoft Excel aracılığıyla dijitalleştirilmiş, ardından IBM SPSS 27.0.1 sürümüyle analiz edilmiştir. Verilerin analizinde Ki-kare, Fisher’s Exact testi ve Pearson Korelasyon analizi kullanılmış, istatistiksel anlamlılık değeri için p<0.05 kabul edilmiştir. Bulgular: Ankete katılan 151 bakım verenin 83’ü (%55,3) kadın, 67’si (%44,7) erkektir. Katılımcıların yaş ortalaması 40,09’dur. Bakım verenlerin %41,1’i umutsuzluk düzeyi ölçeğinde “minimal ya da yok”, %39,7'si "hafif düzeyde", %13.2'si orta düzeyde ve %6’sı “aşırı düzeyde” skorunu almıştır. KYB’lere bakım verenlerin demografik özellikleri ile umutsuzluk düzeyi arasında anlamlı bir ilişki bulunmamıştır. Bakım verenlerin yaşı, cinsiyeti, medeni durumu, gelir durumu ve bakım verme süresi ile umutsuzluk skorları arasında anlamlı bir ilişki bulunmazken, eğitim seviyesi ile umutsuzluk skorları arasında anlamlı bir ilişki bulunmuştur. (p=0,019). Sonuç: Bakım verenlerin, umutsuzluk düzeyleri göz önüne alındığında, önemli psikolojik yükler taşıdığına ve bu yükün, özellikle bakım verenin eğitim seviyesi ile hastanın sağlık durumu arasında belirgin ilişkiler gösterdiğine ulaşılmıştır. Bu bilgiler ışığında, sosyodemografik özelliklerin bakım verenleri önemli ölçüde etkilediği görülmüştür. Bakım verenlerin duygusal yükleri, bakım alıcılarla olan ilişkileri ve bu sürecin hem bireysel hem toplumsal düzeyde getirdiği zorluklar ve sorumluluklar, ihtimam etiği kapsamında ele alınmıştır. Araştırma neticesinde bakım verenlerin karşılaştığı zorluklar ve ihtiyaçlarının daha geniş bir toplumsal ve etik perspektiften ele alınmasının gerekliliği ortaya konmuştur. Bakım verenlerin bakımına yönelik öneriler, duygusal destek; teorik eğitim ve bilgilendirme desteği; pratik ve uygulamalı destek; kaynak erişimi ve tahsisi; tanıma ve doğrulama başlıkları altında sunulmuştur. (shrink)

Abstract The rapid emergence of cyberspace as a parallel domain to physical reality has introduced profound ethical challenges, reshaping traditional philosophical inquiries. Cyberethics, as a subfield of applied ethics, investigates moral principles, norms, and responsible behavior within digital environments shaped by information and communication technologies. This chapter provides a conceptual and philosophical framework for cyberethics, situating it within the broader discipline of ethics. It explores metaethical debates about the universality and objectivity of moral norms in cyberspace and examines normative approaches—including (...) consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics—by highlighting how each framework addresses issues such as privacy, security, digital manipulation, and algorithmic bias. Beyond theory, the chapter discusses practical domains where ethical dilemmas manifest: data protection, cyberbullying, digital identity, artificial intelligence, and cybersecurity. Special attention is given to design-oriented solutions, such as Ethics by Design and Value-Sensitive Design, as proactive strategies for embedding human values into technology development. By integrating classical ethical theories with emerging technological realities, this chapter argues for a reflective and adaptive ethical framework to guide individual actions, institutional policies, and global governance in cyberspace. Such an approach is crucial for ensuring fairness, autonomy, and justice in an increasingly digitalized society. (shrink)

The world is facing a once-in-a-lifetime situation: the COVID-19 pandemic. During the pandemic, the World Health Organization announced an infodemic as well. This infodemic caused infollution and sparked many controversies. Pandemics as extraordinary occurrences are always attractive to historians. However, infodemics and biased information threaten objective history-writing. Objectivity as it regards historians is already a much-discussed subject. In this commentary, the fundamental theories about objectivity are delineated. Second, the relationship between the infodemic and COVID-19 pandemic is explained. Lastly, the problems (...) regarding objectivity in the historiography of the COVID-19 pandemic are explored. (shrink)

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) presents a significant problem that necessitates a greater understanding of its underlying molecular complexity in order to improve diagnostics and therapies. Recent studies have shed light on the critical role that mitochondrial dysfunction plays in the development and course of HCC. Once thought to be primarily involved in the synthesis of cellular energy, mitochondria are now known to be key participants in the regulation of a variety of cellular functions that go beyond bioenergetics. The purpose of this (...) review is to elucidate the diagnostic and therapeutic implications of mitochondrial dysfunction in HCC by synthesising ideas from conventional and contemporary scientific literature. Within diagnostics, the discovery of mitochondrial biomarkers such as mutations in mitochondrial DNA and abnormalities in respiratory chain complex activities provides a state-of-the-art viewpoint for the timely identification and accurate description of HCC. In addition, non-invasive imaging methods that focus on mitochondrial function offer prospective means of improving clinical diagnostic accuracy. Moving on to treatment, a growing area of study investigates how mitochondria-targeted therapies might be used to treat HCC. Novel substances and repurposed medications with the potential to induce selective apoptosis in cancer cells, reduce oxidative stress, and restore mitochondrial homeostasis are highly promising. In the fight against hepatocellular carcinoma, an understanding of the complex interactions between mitochondrial dysfunction and HCC opens new diagnostic opportunities and paves the way for individualised treatment plans. (shrink)

During their educational life, medical students encounter several challenges, the origins and causes of which vary. This paper explores and attempts to scrutinize two of these challenges, before eventually introducing the concept of responsibility. First, this paper describes the general characteristics of medical schools, medical students, and medical education. Second, two different ethical challenges that medical students confront are then delineated: the anxiety of continuously questioning ‘while being trained, do I cause patients to receive suboptimal health care?’ and occasionally feeling (...) obligated, consequently, to breach the ethical boundaries to practice procedures on patients. Finally, the faculty of responsibility and its components are introduced and discussed as a model that can overcome these ethical challenges. (shrink)

Hicrî üçüncü asırda Belh’te yaşamış bir sûfî olan Ebû Bekir el-Verrâk’tan (ö. 280/893) bahseden Kelâbâzî (ö. 380/990), Sülemî (ö. 412/1021), Kuşeyrî (ö. 465/1072) ve Hücvîrî (ö. 465/1072[?]) gibi müellif sûfîler onun tasavvufa dair eserleri olduğunu kaydederler. Bu bilgiden de hareketle Süleymaniye Kütüphanesi’nde Risâle-i Tasavvuf adıyla Verrâk’a nisbet edilen Farsça mensur bir risâle dikkat çeker. Verrâk’ın aslen Tirmizli oluşu ve Belh’te yaşaması Farsça bir eser yazabileceği ihtimalini gündeme getirir. Mukaddimesinde müellif ismi bulunmayan eserde dikkat çeken ilk husus daha ilk sayfalarından itibaren (...) Mevlânâ Celâleddîn-i Rûmî (ö. 672/1273) ve Fahreddîn-i Irākî (ö. 688/1289) gibi sûfîlerden yapılan iktibaslardır. Bu alıntılar eserin Verrâk’a âit olmadığını kesin olarak gösterir. Risâlenin sonunda bulunan ketebe kaydında ise müellifin ismi “kâtibuhû Dervîş Yûsufiy-yi Haydarî bi’l-meşhûr Yakînî” şeklinde açıkça yazılmıştır. Bunun yanı sıra risâlenin içinde de Yakînî (ö. 15. yy) kendisine ait Beşâretnâme isimli risâleden bahsederken ismini açıkça kaydeder. Esasen eserin müellifi gerek risâlenin içinde gerekse sonunda açıkça zikredilmiş olduğundan eserin âidiyetiyle ilgili mesele çözülür. Bu durumda eserin Verrâk’a nisbet edilmesinin kataloğa kaydedilirken yapılan bir hatadan kaynaklandığı anlaşılır. Bu hataya sebebiyet veren husus ise risâlenin yer aldığı mecmuânın ilk sayfasında geçen “Risâle-i tasavvuf min ilmi’l-ahlâk li’ş-Şeyh Ebî Bekr el-Verrâk” ifadesi olmalıdır. Buradan hareketle risâlenin incelenmeksizin Verrâk’a nisbetle kataloglandığı görülür. Bu araştırmada sehven Verrâk’a nisbet edilen söz konusu yazma eser incelenmiştir. Çalışmada tarihsel eleştiri ve metin tenkidi yöntemleri kullanılmıştır. Eserin âidiyeti; nüshanın fiziksel özellikleri, ketebe kaydı ve metin içi tarihsel referansların (alıntılanan şahıslar ve terminoloji) analiziyle yeniden belirlenmiştir. Eserin muhtevası ise tasavvuf tarihi ve doktrini açısından tahlil edilerek, Yakînî’nin düşünce sistemindeki yeri ortaya konulmuştur. Çalışmanın amacı eserin nisbetindeki hatayı düzeltmek, araştırmacıları Çağatay edebiyatının önde gelen şairlerinden olan Yakînî’nin günümüze ulaştığı bilinmeyen bir risâlesinden haberdar etmek ve eserin muhtevâsını değerlendirmektir. Şimdiye kadar Yakînî’den günümüze sadece Çağatay Türkçesiyle kaleme aldığı Ok-yaynıng Münâzârası başlıklı küçük bir mensur risâlenin ulaştığı zannedilmekteydi. Bu makaleyle onun fikir yapısını yansıtan yeni bir risâlesi ilk kez gün yüzüne çıkacak, dolayısıyla çalışma Yakînî’nin düşünce dünyasını keşfetmeye kapı aralayacaktır. Öte yandan eserin muhtevası Yakînî’nin ibâhîlik, hulûlîlik ve hatta hurûfîlikle ilişkilendirilip ilişkilendirilemeyeceğini tartışmaya imkân vermektedir. Bu çalışma söz konusu tartışmanın konunun uzmanlarınca gündeme getirildiği ve Yakînî’nin bu çevrelerle ilişkisinin sorgulandığı yeni araştırmalara da zemin hazırlayacaktır. (shrink)

The Book and the Sunnah are the two main sources of Sharʿī science. These two sources are based on narration which requires an absolute certainty, and this makes the reports, especially the mutawātir reports, important for Sharʿī sciences. Many people were involved in the transmission process of the Sunnah and the Book; therefore, Islamic scholars remained loyal to the technical concept “mutawātir reports” which is used in logic and is not open to doubt in terms of credibility. This is particularly (...) important for the science of kalām, which deals with matters of faith. On the other hand, in the science of fiqh, which deals with the practices of the Muslim individuals such as worship and procedures rather than the matters of faith, only the reports that the believer will accept, rather than those that everyone will approve, are sufficient. In this context, as per the science of fiqh, it is sufficient to form a dominant opinion, rather than an absolute certainty as in the science of kalām, for acting upon reports. Some factors, such as the acceptance of conjecture sufficient in the matters associated with fiqh and the low number of mutawātir reports on fiqh matters, also affected the fuqahā’s understanding of certain knowledge. In the context of transmission of the Sunnah, fuqahā partially changed the nature of the concept “mutawātir reports” by going beyond the technical understanding of tawatur. The most important change made by the fuqahā in the nature of mutawātir reports was the inclusion of the phenomenon “sened (chain of transmission)”, which is used to ensure credibility to ḥadīt̲h̲s, in the understanding of tawatur. So much so that while the number rather than the qualifications of the people who convey the reports is important for the credibility of the mutawātir reports in the science of logic; in the determination of mutawātir sunnah, the number of the narration channels which consist of just and fair-minded narrators was taken as a basis in line with the hadith “Whoever ascribes to me what I have not said then let him occupy his seat in Hell-fire.” Even some methodologists valued the justness and fair-mindedness of the narrators so much that they included the famous reports in the scope of mutawātir reports, even though the first layer was ahad, due to their trust in the narrators in the later layers. However, in technical sense, for mutawātir reports, the qualifications of the narrators or who they are is not important at all. On the contrary, any person from a different religion, sect or disposition can take a role in the transmission of mutawātir reports. However, there is no place for fasiq narrators, let alone non-Muslims, in fuqahā’s concept of sened-centered mutawātir reports. Spiritual mutawātir is one of the subjects affected the most by this new understanding of tawatur based on isnād (reporting the chain of transmission). Normally, spiritual mutawātir is the agreement of the reports, conveyed in different texts by a large number of people who cannot agree on a lie, on a common meaning. However, fuqahā interpreted spiritual mutawātir as ahad ḥadīt̲h̲s with different chains of sened reaching a certain number and denoting the same meaning. What makes these two reports different is that the number of narrators assures the credibility of reports in the first one whereas the trust in the justness and fair-mindedness of the narrators does in the second. As a matter of fact, it is not possible to talk about such a spiritual mutawātir if the trust in the justness and fair-mindedness of the narrators who convey the ahad reports is damaged. This approach of spiritual mutawātir was used by the mutakallimūn as much as by the fuqahā. However, they used this approach of mutawātir mostly for matters that are evidenced by the Sunnah but not associated with the essentials of religion, such as Shafa'ah (intercession), Hawd al-Kawthar (Pond of Abundance), Ru’yat Allah (seeing Allah), and imams’ being from Quraysh. Thanks to this new concept of tawatur, Islamic scholars included many ḥadīt̲h̲s that are normally out of the scope of the technical definition of mutawātir reports, in the scope of spiritual mutawātir, and thus provided a credibility to more ḥadīt̲h̲s. (shrink)

The preschool period is a period when the character of the child is formed, all their qualities and abilities begin to be formed, and can be used. Education is for human, and its main purpose is to develop all the abilities of a human by revealing them and to contribute to the healthy saturation of their emotions. It is also the duty of the educator to reveal and educate the child's innate sense of belief in a supreme being. In this (...) regard, the joint support of the child’s religious development, which is an integral part of development, as well as all areas of development, is an important aspect that should be considered in the context of the principle of “integrity” of development. Therefore, religious education is necessary in the preschool period, as well as other knowledge and skills. Taking into account the characteristics of the developmental period in which the child is located, religious education, which will be provided to the child using appropriate methods and techniques, will be able to contribute to the child throughout his/her life. The important thing here is that this educationshould be pedagogically based and the data of other branches of science should be used. However, in our country, there are no gains to support the religious development areas of the child in the curriculum of the preschool period, and there is no religious education activity other than the answers given to the religious questions asked by the children. In this study, many issues such as the necessity of religious education in the preschool period, its importance, possible consequences, what are its principles and methods will be discussed comprehensively from the point of view of preschool teachers in this study. As a result of this study, which was based on the relational scanning model, which is one of the qualitative research methods, some conclusions were reached such as that it would be appropriate to give religious education considering the developmental stages of children in the pre-school period, and that the religious development area of the child would be lacking in the absence of religious education. (shrink)

This article suggests that both the multicultural perception of ‘ community’ as a bounded and internally homogeneous body and the celebration of migrants as hybrids and anti-essentialist actors fail to acknowledge the complexity of processes of identity construction. The first reifies and essentializes migrants’ cultural identities, denying subjective contestations over notions of cultural and religious authenticity. The celebration of migrants as progressive and counterhegemonic ‘hybrids’, however, reinforces essentialist understandings of ‘migrants’, producing a hierarchy between experiences of displacement. The article suggests (...) that it is essential to understand the ways in which migrants construct imagined, transnational and local communities. It provides a picture of the ways in which Moroccan migrant women in Italy draw and experience boundaries of exclusion and inclusion, of Self and Other in their day-to-day practices and discourses. In particular, it argues that Moroccan women define themselves both vis-a-vis Italians as well as by drawing boundaries between themselves and other Moroccan women and men. (shrink)

The hereafter, one of the main pillars of Islam, has been discussed by both theologians and Ṣūfīs from various angles and interpreted in many different ways. Although there is consensus on the main subjects, there are a lot of controversies in details. One of the Ṣūfīs who authored on diverse problems over the hereafter is ʿAlāʾ al-Dawla al-Simnānī (d. 736/1336). He was a Kubrawī shaykh during the Īlkhānid era. He inclined towards the Ṣūfī path after serving the Buddhist ruler Arghun (...) (r. 1284-1291) for ten years, thanks to a spiritual experience he had. He met with Nūr al-dīn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Isfarāyīnī (d. 717/1317), a Kubrawī shaykh based in Baghdad, and became a disciple of him, granted ijāza (a certificate of authority) from him. Upon his shaykh’s order, he turned back to his hometown and spent his life until his death, in his Ṣūfī lodge raising disciples and writing works. He had contributed greatly both to his own order and to the literature of Ṣūfism with his disciples and written works. As regards to the hereafter, his opinions on the reality of this world and its position against the next, death, the doomsday and its kinds, the existence of the paradise and the hell today and their present location are remarkable. In this article, his views over those problems are discussed in the context of his understanding of mystical training.Summary: ʿAlāʾ al-Dawla al-Simnānī (d. 736/1336) lived between the second half of the seventh century (h.) and the first half of the eighth century, in today’s Iran, during reign of the Īlkhānid’s. Thanks to the connection of his family to the Īlkhānid court, his father and uncle’s administrative positions at the court and his will and efforts, he started to serve Arghun (r. 1284-1291) around the age of fifteen and gained his personal intimacy. After serving him for ten years, he experienced a spiritual transformation and inclined towards a mystical life. He left Arghun for his hometown Simnān, on the pretext of his disease that courtier doctors could not treated, but under the condition that he would turn back after he recovered from the disease. He got better just after a while but did not return. He arrived Simnān at the beginning of a holy month of Ramadan, took off his formal clothes and began to mystical training himself based on Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī’s Qūt al-qulūb. After a while, he met with one of the disciples of Nūr al-dīn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Isfarāyīnī (d. 717/1317) and wondered about him. Then left Simnān for Baghdad with the intention of visiting him. However, Arghun was informed about this and prevented him from going to Baghdad, withholding him for some time. After a while, Simnānī escaped from Arghun and returned to Simnān and wrote a letter to al-Isfarāyīnī on this incident. In response, al-Isfarāyīnī said that he does not need to visit Baghdad, al-Isfarāyīnī would be with him spiritually and ordered him to start his training. Simnānī kept his connection alive with his shaykh during this period via letters and spiritual meetings but he could not meet with him face to face. Afterwards, he could meet him twice and granted ijāza from him.After that, upon his shaykh’s order, he turned back to Simnān and engaged with disciples’ mystical trainings and authoring books. He gained an eminent position in both his order and history of the Ṣūfism, upbringing too many disciples and writing around ninety works. His importance in the Kubraviyya rooted firstly in the fact that the extant sub-branches of the order have him in their silsila (spiritual genealogy). In this regard Simnānī is a key actor within his order. Besides, it is significant that he had great impact on the founders of two branches of the Kubraviyya, i.e. Sayyid ʿAlī Hamadānī (d. 786/1385) and Muhammad Nurbakhsh (d. 869/1464) that indicating his influence among the order itself. When examined from the angel of the history of the Ṣūfism, the most apparent and distinctive point regarding Simnānī is his criticism against Ibn ʿArabī (d. 637/1240) on the problem of being. Notwithstanding, his supreme contribution to the Ṣūfism is his doctrine of latāif, which particularly influenced Pārsā (d. 822/1240), a leading disciple of the founder of the Naqshbandiyya. Likewise his mystical experiences and thoughts on rijāl al-ghāib had also influenced subsequent Ṣūfīs. His thoughts on the problem of khawātir, which is crucial component of Kubravī path, and detailed information given in his books regarding the lights (anwār) and the truth of nūr as well as his explanations about the situations experienced during the manifestation of God can be listed among his contributions to the history of the Ṣūfism.Simnānī who wrote on various problems of Ṣūfism, dealt with the problem of the Hereafter in the context of his understanding of initiation. For the world cannot be disunited from the Hereafter, as his understanding of the Hereafter is examined, his view of the world is studied as well. With reference to the presupposition that there are three distinct dimensions of the world, Simnānī says that man’s relationship with the world should be differentiated according to following three aspects: the world’s being a plantation for the hereafter, the world’s being a place that should be abandoned and the world does not have a reality. According to him the hereafter is a continuous moment, whereas the worldly life is bound by the past and the future. Since the past and the future do not have a real being, hence the world as well does not have real being. Simnānī embraces the death and the Doomsday in an intertwined fashion in the context of his own understanding of mystical training. Approvingly the consensus of the Ṣūfis, he divides the death into two: necessary and voluntary. And he divides the Doomsday into three: big, middle and small. According to this, the wayfarer who has weakened his soul’s evil attributes via the voluntary death observes the situations of the small doomsday. Thereby the wayfarer who observed everything that is depicted in the Quran that will be experienced after the necessary death, gains time to take necessary precautions before the necessary death, which is irremediable. Another issue that Simnānī raises regarding the Doomsday is the sorts of the Doomsday. Based on the different names of the Doomsday, he says that there are different doomsdays each of which is related with one of the latāif situated among human faculties. Ultimately salvation from those doomsdays is possible with a different good deed. Another point that Simnānī comes up with is the problem of existence of the paradise and the hell today. He thinks that the paradise and the hell both exist today, with reference to his own kashf. He relates this narrating the verses and the traditions, which support his view. Besides, he accepts that there are two paradises and hells, one is inside the human nature and the other is out there. According to Simnānī, entering the outer paradise without observing one’s inner paradise is nonsense. This is possible only through a spiritual journey from one’s external being into his/her internal being. In the end, this can only be accomplished via the voluntary death. (shrink)

Nazariyat, Journal for the History of Islamic Philosophy and Sciences, issued twice a year in English and Turkish (Nazariyat İslam Felsefe ve Bilim Tarihi Araştırmaları Dergisi), is a refereed international journal. It publishes original studies, critical editions of classical texts and book reviews on Islamic philosophy, kalām, theoretical aspects of Sufism and the history of sciences. The goal of Nazariyat is to contribute to the discovery, examination and reinterpretation of the theoretical traditions in the history of Islamic thought, by giving (...) special attention to the post-classical period of it. **ISSN: 2148-8088 E-ISBN: 2547-9415**. (shrink)

: ‘Alā’ al-Dawla al-Simnānī (d. 736/1336) was a Kubrawī sheikh lived in Simnān one hundred years after Ibn al-Arabī (d. 638/1240). He authored around ninety works in Arabic and Persian on various fields within Sūfism, raised many disciples. His contribution to the sūfī tradition mainly come to forefront regarding problems like unity, latāif (subtle organs), rijāl al-ghaib (men of the unseen), wāqia (dream-like mystical experiences) and tajallī (manifestation). Simnānī’s understanding of the unity influenced subsequent sūfī’s and specifically Ahmad Sirhindī (d. (...) 1034/1624) and his sheikh Bāqībillah’s (d. 1012/1603) views of the unity overlap with Simnānī’s one. In Maktūbāt, Sirhindī who developed the idea of unity of the seen against the unity of the existence expresses that his understanding of being is the same with Simnānī’s one. Simnānī is also known as the first critic of Ibn al-Arabī’s conception of the unity among sūfī’s. Such that, whenever his name is mentioned the first thing comes to one’s mind has been his criticism against Ibn al-Arabī. However, his criticism against Ibn al-Arabī was not studied as a whole looking at his ouvre. Studying Simnānī’s works, it is seen that his criticism is concentrated on two main problems. First is Ibn al-Arabī’s employing the concept wujūd al-mutlaq (absolute being) for God. He maintains that it is not convenient to use this concept for al-Haq. His second criticism is against a sentence mentioned in al-Futūhāt: “سبحان من أظهر الأشياء وهو عينها”. In this article, causes for Simnānī’s critiques will be discussed and both sūfī’s conceptions of wujūd al-mutlaq and ‘ayn (quintessence) will be studied.Summary: One of the famous names in the Kubrawī tradition, ‘Alā’ al-Dawla al-Simnānī is a sheikh who lived in the city of Simnān in the contemporary Iran between 659-736/1261-1336. In his youth, he served in the service of Arghūn Khan (r. 1284-1291) in the Īlkhānid Palace; and later, after a spiritual experience, he left the palace and turned to a Ṣūfī life. For a certain period, he continued worshipping and riyādhat (spiritual fight against the evil commanding self) on his own, and looked for a guide convenient to his character. Eventually, he became the disciple of the Kubrawī sheikh in Baghdad, Nūr al-Dīn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Isfarāyīnī (d. 717/1317), and obtained ijāzah (permission) for irshād (guidance). After that, with the instruction of his sheikh, he went back to Simnān; and spent rest of his life with guiding his disciples and writing scholarly works. He authored around ninety works in Arabic and Persian on various fields within Sūfism. His contribution to the sūfī tradition mainly comes to forefront regarding problems like unity, latāif, rijāl al-ghaib, wāqia and tajallī; and influenced subsequent sūfī’s. Simnani’s influences can best be seen on the founder of the Mujaddidiyya branch of Naqshbandiyya, Ahmad Sirhindī (d. 1034/1624), and Sirhindī’s sheikh Bāqībillah (d. 1012/1603). In a letter Bāqībillah wrote to Sirhindī, he mentions certain differences between Simnānī’s understanding of unity and unity of the existence by stating that Simnānī’s path is not that of unity of the existence, and that his shuhūd (seen) is the most perfect shuhūd. Also in the Maktūbāt, Sirhindī expresses that his understanding of being is the same with that of Simnānī’s. Simnānī is also known as the first critic of Ibn al-Arabī’s conception of being and unity among sūfī’s. It would not be incorrect to say that he is more famous for this critique so much so that whenever his name is mentioned the first thing comes to one’s mind has been his criticism against Ibn al-Arabī. The main reason for this is that a letter Simnānī wrote to one of the followers of Ibn al-Arabī, ʿAbd al-Razzāq al-Kāshānī (d. 736/1335) in which Simnānī criticizes Ibn al-Arabī’s conception of unity, was included in the famous work of Abd al-Raḥmān Jāmī (d. 898/1492), Nafakhāt al-uns. This letter’s presence in the Nafakhāt played a vital role in its publicity. For this reason, it can be said that Nafakhāt made Simnānī famous. Yet, it should also be said that the fame stemming from Nafakhāt is incomplete and it is just about one aspect of Simnānī, a scholar who authored dozens of books on the Sūfism. Moreover, it is not correct to defend that Simnānī’s statements in that letter reflects a full picture of his opinion about Ibn al-Arabī. Hence, to have a better understanding of his criticism and thoughts about Ibn al-Arabī, one should explore other works of Simnānī as well. Studying Simnānī’s works, it is seen that his criticism is concentrated on two main problems. First is Ibn al-Arabī’s employing the concept wujūd al-mutlaq for God. His second criticism is against a sentence mentioned in al-Futūhāt: “سبحان من أظهر الأشياء وهو عينها”. To understand the first criticism, one needs to know the meaning both sūfī’s attribute to the concept of wujūd al-mutlaq; and for the second the meaning they attribute to the concept of ‘ayn. First, it should be known that Ibn al-Arabī did not think of being as a form category the members of which are beings. To the contrary, he uses wujūd exclusively for the Eternal, and refrains from using the concept of wujūd for the creation; and calls them mawjūd. In other words, Ibn al-Arabī differentiates between being and existence; and limits the concept of being only for the al-Haqq. Ibn al-Arabī states this view repeatedly in statements such as “al-Haqq (the Truth) is being; things, however, are attributes of being.” What Ibn al-Arabī means by wujūd al-mutlaq is al-Haqq who is wajib al-wujūd (the Necessary Being) and free from all restrictions. Thus, in a certain sense wujūd al-mutlaq means wajib al-wujūd. By writing that “Wujūd al-Haqq is the essence of wajib al-wujūd who is qualified with the perfect attributes of eternity and infinity. Absolute Being is the actions emanating from these attributes. Wujūd al-Muqayyad (the Limited Being) is the outcome that comes into existence as a result of these actions”, Simnānī explicitly states that for him Absolute Being is the actions of al-Haqq. What one can understand from the statements of both sūfī’s is that while by wujūd al-mutlaq Ibn al-Arabī refers to wajib al-wujūd (i.e. the essence of al-Haqq), for the same term Simnānī refers to actions of al-Haqq. Since in criticizing Ibn al-Arabī, Simnānī takes into account his own definition of the term Wujūd al-Mutlaq as the actions of al-Haqq, his criticisms are not valid. In fact, both exonerate al-Haqq from all the conditions. However, while Ibn al-Arabī chooses to verbalize the existence of God with the concept of “Absolute Being”, Simnānī only approves to express the existence of God with the concepts of wājib al-wujūd and al-Wujūd al-Haqq and differing from Ibn al-Arabī attributes the meaning of the actions of God to the concept of Absolute Being.Simnānī’s second critique against Ibn al-Arabī is related to this sentence: “سبحان من أظهر الأشياء وهو عينها”. An annotation that is written by Simnānī on a page which is out of his gloss on al-Futūhāt is highly harsh reads as follows: “O, followers of the most deviant leader! If you hear that one says that your sheikh is identical with his beard, put the claim that he is identical with his rejectomenta aside, should you accept this and tolerate him?” It is understood from these sentences that Simnānī considers the concept “al-ayn” as the essence of that thing. Though, the word “al-ayn” is one of the most multi-meaning word in the Arabic language and in Ibn al-Arabī’s works it is used with various meanings such as eye, the quintessence, spring, water source, tangible being of a thing, the essence of a thing and so on. The usage as “the essence of a thing” is very much common in Ibn al-Arabī’s works. It is interesting that while this word has so many meanings, Simnānī takes one meaning as base and blaspheme against Ibn al-Arabī. It is obvious that the main cause for Simnānī’s critique against Ibn al-Arabī in both problems is his attribution to the concepts different meanings than Ibn al-Arabī and then judging him in the context of his attributes. (shrink)