Islam

This paper addresses the methodological problem of scientific interpretation of the Qur’an from a critical perspective, focusing on the persistent tension between two dominant approaches: a rhetorical–linguistic method that confines Qur’anic meaning to eloquence and stylistic structure, and a scientific method that seeks surface-level correspondence between Qur’anic expressions and empirical findings. The study argues that this polarization results from the absence of a linguistic–causal framework capable of regulating the relationship between Qur’anic discourse and the structure of natural phenomena. To address (...) this gap, the paper proposes a third, integrative methodology centered on the concept of the Qur’anic Meaning Function, understood as a principle that links the semantic architecture of Qur’anic language with the causal organization of creation. This framework is developed through inductive analysis of Arabic lexical roots, drawing on classical linguistic sources, and through a semiotic reading of cosmological verses within their broader Qur’anic context. The study contends that Qur’anic language does not operate as a retrospective empirical description nor as a metaphorical representation of phenomena, but rather performs a constitutive function that articulates phenomena from within their governing laws. The validity of this framework is examined through four applied case studies: the verse of al-Ṭāriq, the verse of al-Ḥubuk, the verse of al-Rawāsi, and the verse of al-Kitāb. Each case is analyzed across linguistic, contextual, and semiotic levels to reveal structural correspondences between Qur’anic meaning and the organizing principles of natural phenomena. The paper concludes that Qur’anic inimitability lies not in empirical prediction, but in offering a pre-empirical epistemic model that formulates universal laws of understanding through a rigorously causal linguistic system, wherein precision of expression mirrors the coherence of creation. (shrink)

For a research project I engaged in from 2004-2007, I gathered and analysed statements made by representatives of Islamist terrorist movements on the Internet and compared key themes of their ideology (such as "democracy", "capitalism", "globalization", "colonialism" and "underdevelopment") to the writings and ideology of authors in various traditions of Christian "political theology". In this paper, it is being established that there are clear similarities in the socio-political analysis advanced by Christian political and liberation theologians and representatives of Islamist terrorist (...) movements and radical Islam, respectively. The paper also offers a short history and extended discussion of the concept of "political theology" and elaborates on radical Islam's understanding of theology and politics. Primary and secondary literature on Christian and Islamic political and liberation theologies and radical Islam are being reviewed (including the most recent writings on "political theology" emanating from, mainly leftist, theory circles in Europe and the US). In an attempt to expand the term "political theology" to cover the socio-political analysis, arguments, and ideology of radical Islam, anti-liberalism is revealed as the single most important factor underlying all political theology. The argument is made that being anti-liberal means being (at least potentially) anti-democratic as well. A discussion of future lines of academic inquiry opens up the possibility of a common definition or framework covering all forms of political and liberation theologies and asks whether comparative political theology may be the ultimate political theory. (shrink)

This research proposes a reconstructive critique of the concept of Tauhid al-Af’al in the book Ad-Durrun Nafis (The Precious Pearls) by Sheikh Muhammad Nafis al-Banjari (1785 CE) [1]. Departing from the Quranic premise that Allah is Al- Muhith (The All-Encompassing), this study proposes a logical consistency test: if Allah encompasses everything, then He must encompass not only the action of oppression but also the reaction of resistance. Critical analysis of the original text of Ad-Durrun Nafis reveals reasoning fallacies such as (...) Special Pleading (Double Standards) and Equivocation (Ambiguity of Meaning), where servants are taught to view suffering as Af’al Allah (God’s actions) but are forbidden from viewing their resistance through the same lens. This paper proves that early Islamic theology applied a dialectical Wahdatul Wujud (Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis) as manifested in the Battle of Badr. Conversely, Ad-Durrun Nafis, as a product of the “Late Abbasid Political Model” [5], reduces this concept into static resignation (Thesis only) which creates a quietist mentality. This reduction, while perhaps strategic in the 18th-century feudal context, has weakened the fighting spirit of the Nusantara civilization. The proposed reconstruction: Action and Reaction are a single unity of God’s Existence that is All-Encompassing, where acceptance of the consequences of reaction is the highest manifestation of Divine will. (shrink)

Ontosemantics is an interdisciplinary field of study that integrates semantic analysis (linguistic meaning) with ontological reflection (structure of existence). In the contemporary context, ontosemantics serves as a critical intersection between philosophy of language, spiritual revelation, and artificial intelligence (AI) technology. This article offers an ontosemantic reading of the first command in the Qur’an, Iqra’ (”Read!”), positioning it as a trigger for the activation of ontosemantic consciousness within the human self. Through an interdisciplinary approach encompassing Qur’anic hermeneutics, natural language processing (NLP) (...) theory, and Islamic metaphysics, this article demonstrates that language operates as a bidirectional mirror logic: one side enables machines to understand human meaning through artificial ontologies; the other enables humans to approach divine reality through the language of revelation. The study concludes that Iqra’ functions as a spiritual algorithm for reality validation, preventing humans from ”ontological hallucinations” in the era of digital simulation. This paper also anticipates criticisms from cognitive science and continental philosophy, and provides practical implications for the development of spiritually-based AI Ethics. (shrink)

Thermodynamic irreversibility—the physical basis of the arrow of time—is not merely an obstacle to eternal bodily existence but is metaphysically constitutive of temporal existence as such. Drawing on Aristotelian hylomorphism as interpreted by Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and engaging technically with the philosophy of thermodynamics (Eddington, Reichenbach, Price, Albert), I argue that hylomorphic identity—the identity of a soul-body composite as an ongoing actualization process—presupposes an entropic temporal regime (∆S > 0). The same physical condition that makes identity-in-time possible thereby makes biological (...) decay inevitable; entropy is not a curse superimposed upon existence, but the metaphysical price of temporal existence itself. The Qur’anic declaration that on the Day of Resurrection “the earth shall be replaced by another earth” (Q. Ibrahim 14:48) is thus not a claim about geographical relocation, but a declaration of the transformation of the thermodynamic regime governing temporal existence. Resurrection is not a restoration to a prior physical state but a culmination—the transition of the hylomorphic form to a new mode of temporal existence in a transformed ontological substrate, further articulated through Mulla Sadra’s doctrine of al-haraka al-jawhariyya (substantial motion) as ontological intensification rather than mere reconstitution. (shrink)

Problem. Tawhıd — the Islamic affirmation of divine oneness — has been extensively treated in theological and ritual registers, but its structure as an ontological postulate remains under-formalised. In particular, no existing account supplies a non-circular proof of singular existence, a rigorous treatment of how phenomenal multiplicity is consistent with ontological unity, or a precise positioning of Islamic non-dualism within contemporary analytic metaphysics. Approach. We present an axiomatic formulation of Ontological Tawh ̄ıd . grounded in three axioms — no existence (...) besides E; every appearance is ontologically identical with E; phenomenal differentiation is a cognitive construct — situated within the modal system S5 under a conditional necessity reading that preserves phenomenological modesty. The methodology combines formal proof, ontosemantic analysis of Qur’anic pronominal shifts, cross-tradition comparison, and engagement with analytic metaphysics. Results. The main formal contribution is a non-circular proof of singular existence, replacing the circular use of the identity axiom with an independently motivated principle (OD) — reconstructed using Fine’s grounding operator as (OD∗) — grounded in a restricted Principle of Sufficient Reason and an anti-regress argument. The framework is identified as Exclusive Monism, distinguished from Schaffer’s Priority Monism and Mereological Nihilism, and shown to generate detectably different verdicts on the combination problem, mathematical Platonism, and the problem of evil. An explicit acknowledgement of the is–ought gap in the ethical derivation is provided. Significance. The framework contributes to Islamic metaphysics, comparative theology (Advaita Veda ̄nta, Wahdat al-Wuju ̄d), and analytic metaphysics simultaneously, offering a shared formal vocabulary for non-dual positions across traditions while identifying the precise points at which they diverge. (shrink)

The discourse on female leadership in Islam is often polarized between classical pa- triarchal interpretations and sociological liberal approaches. This paper rejects such dichotomy and proposes a method of Strict Linguistic Deduction. The central the- sis is that the Quran establishes a system of Proportional Equitability (al-’adalah al-tanasubiyyah), where rights are directly proportional to financial obligations. This analysis is bolstered by an epistemological confrontation with classical exegesis (Al- Tabari, Al-Razi) and validation through Islamic legal theory (Ta’lil al-Ahkam, Nazariyyat al-’Aqd). The (...) study further proposes a model of ”Jurisdictional Separation” vali- dated by historical precedents (Shajar al-Durr, Razia Sultan), and deconstructs the ha- dith prohibiting female leadership through rigorous historical criticism and sanad anal- ysis. (shrink)

Thermodynamic irreversibility—the physical basis of the arrow of time—is not merely an obstacle to eternal bodily existence but is metaphysically constitutive of temporal existence as such. Drawing on Aristotelian hylomorphism as interpreted by Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and engaging technically with the philosophy of thermodynamics (Eddington, Reichenbach, Price, Albert), I argue that hylomorphic identity—the identity of a soul-body composite as an ongoing actualization process—presupposes an entropic temporal regime (∆S > 0). The same physical condition that makes identity-in-time possible thereby makes biological (...) decay inevitable; entropy is not a curse superimposed upon existence, but the metaphysical price of temporal existence itself. The Qur’anic declaration that on the Day of Resurrection “the earth shall be replaced by another earth” (Q. Ibrahim 14:48) is thus not a claim about geographical relocation, but a declaration of the transformation of the thermodynamic regime governing temporal existence. Resurrection is not a restoration to a prior physical state but a culmination—the transition of the hylomorphic form to a new mode of temporal existence in a transformed ontological substrate, further articulated through Mulla Sadra’s doctrine of al-haraka al-jawhariyya (substantial motion) as ontological intensification rather than mere reconstitution. (shrink)

This paper constructs an orientation toward human consciousness solely from the linguistic structure of the Qur’an, without relying on any external philosophical framework as a point of reference. Through semantic anal- ysis of root words (jidhr), grammatical position, and internal intertextual relations, the paper identifies seven strata of analysis: (1) r ¯uh. as amr, not khalq—a categorical ontological distinction without parallel in the Western tradition; (2) r ¯uh. as a horizon of knowledge rather than an object within it—established through the (...) precise contrast between the prepositions ’an and min in Q. Al-Isr ¯a’: 85; (3) nafs as a processual and status-bearing self, not a static substance; (4) a three-layered cognitive architecture of ’aql–qalb– fu’ ¯ad representing an epistemic hierarchy from the discursive to the most inward and most accountable; (5) ba s.¯ırah as an irreducible inner witness, distinguished across its phenomenal and eschatological levels; (6) n ¯ur and al- H. ayy al-Qayy ¯um as the Source and continuous Sustainer of consciousness; and (7) the infusion of r ¯uh. as continuous emanation, not a one-time trans- fer of substance. The synthesis of these strata yields a coherent worldview: consciousness in the Qur’an is not a problem to be solved, but a relation to be lived—a relation between the nafs entrusted with responsibility and the Source from which it continuously emanates. Ibn S¯ın ¯a’s al-ins ¯an al- t. ¯a’ir argument is employed as an independent rationalist confirmation, not as a tafs¯ır authority. This paper does not seek to respond to the Western tradition of philosophy of mind—it stands within its own framework and invites the reader to enter. (shrink)

Numbers embedded in revealed texts occupy an ambiguous space between theological symbol and empirical claim. When a seventh-century Arabic text states that a single day corresponds to one thousand years, or that the ascent of the angels spans fifty thousand years, the interpreter faces a genuine epistemological choice: treat these figures as metaphor, as numerology, or as something that rewards rigorous quantitative analysis. The Ijaz Ilmi tradition has pursued the third path—yet with methods that betray it, substituting confirmation bias and (...) post-hoc variable selection (“Bucailleism”) for the transparency that scientific engagement demands. A more parsimonious alternative is possible. -/- Three mathematically verifiable theses are advanced. (H1) The integers 6 and 2 in the Qur‘ānic cosmogonic narrative encode a proportional ratio R = 2/6 = 1/3 convergent with the ratio of Earth’s age to the uni- verse’s age in observational cosmology (Tuniv = 13.799 ± 0.021 Gyr; T⊕ = 4.543 ± 0.005 Gyr), with relative deviation ∆ = 1.23%. (H2) The expression “one thousand years per day” encodes a relativistic time-dilation ratio directly, yielding Lorentz factor γ ≈ 354,370 and v ≈ 0.999 999 999 996 c— strictly sub-luminal, derivable without free parameters, and physically superior to the El-Naby claim v = c, which requires cherry-picking the sidereal day and assigns a photon-like, causally inert nature to an entity the text characterises as purposive. (H3) The expression “fifty thousand years per day” yields v = 50c under any velocity model—a result forbidden by Special Relativity—and is instead reconstructed as parallel-processing throughput: n = 50 independent units each of capacity 1,000 yr/day, converging structurally with the quantum-supremacy threshold of ≳ 50 qubits. Bayesian model-comparison yields BF ≈ 488 (decisive on the Kass–Raftery scale) and Monte Carlo simulation gives p(chance) ≈ 0.02–0.04 (seed- dependent) for H1. A falsifiable, transparent verification protocol is pro- posed for science-and-religion hermeneutics. (shrink)

This paper argues that scientific impossibility claims are epistemically indexed to historically bounded formal models and do not entail metaphysical impossibility. Focusing on the Qur’anic account of the splitting of the moon (Insyaqqa al-Qamar, Q. 54:1), the paper does not attempt to demonstrate the physical mechanics of the event, nor does it claim a violation of natural law. Instead, it examines the conceptual structure of impossibility arguments derived from gravitational bind- ing energy calculations and shows that such arguments conflate four (...) modally distinct categories: logical, metaphysical, nomological, and epistemic impossibility. The paper advances a theistic ontological framework in which natural laws are understood as partial formalisations of an immutable divine sunnah. Within this framework, miracles are not violations of natural law but events that remain epistemically inaccessible within the dominant formal horizon of a given historical community while retaining ontological continuity under divine sovereignty. The central argument is that the move from nomological constraint to metaphysical impossibility constitutes an epistemic overreach, leaving divine disclosure as a rational explanatory candidate without invoking a god-of-the- gaps strategy. A conditional parsimony model is developed to illustrate that a physically coherent description exists, and testable predictions are proposed. The argument is self-limiting: the paper specifies in advance the conditions under which it fails. (shrink)

Al-Fātiḥah is recited approximately one billion times daily. What structural properties account for this extraordinary persistence and for the quality of orientation its reciters report? This paper develops a structural philosophical analysis of al-Fātiḥah using the framework of Symbolic Monism (SM) and Resonance Density (RD) theory. Reality, as encountered in conscious experience, is constituted as a network of symbolic relations within the transcendental horizon of consciousness; the epistemic status of any symbolic structure is a function of its integration—its Resonance Density—within (...) this network. -/- The Maximal Integrative Horizon (MIH) designates the limiting condition of complete symbolic integration that the network asymptotically approaches, and which the major theological traditions have articulated under the name of God. Within this framework, prayer is defined as the explicit symbolic act through which individual consciousness raises its Resonance Density by orienting its local subgraph toward MIH. -/- Independent corroboration is drawn from Karl Friston’s Free Energy Principle (FEP), which, on a non-realist reading, characterises the constitutive operation of consciousness as continuous coherence-cost minimisation toward its symbolic horizon—formally equivalent to the RD-maximisation toward MIH described here. -/- The central argument is that al-Fātiḥah is not merely a devotional opening but an architectural sequence: its seven verses articulate seven structurally independent symbolic domains—theological, cosmological, phenomenological, eschatological, performative, ethical, and historical—in a topological order that is not arbitrary. Each layer creates the structural conditions required for the next to function as intended; removing or reordering any layer disrupts these conditions. -/- This architectural necessity is the structural ground of a traditional claim that has resisted philosophical analysis: that al-Fātiḥah is umm al-Qurʾān—the generative matrix of the Qurʾān as a whole. A structural account is also provided for the prescription of seventeen daily recitations: not devotional repetition but topological reinforcement, progressively consolidating the coherence edges generated by the text’s cross-domain triangulation. (shrink)

Islamic ontology posits a tripartite order of conscious entities: angels (malāʾikah), created from light and characterised by absolute obedience; jinn, created from smokeless fire and characterised by partial autonomy; and humans, created from clay and appointed as vicegerents (khulafāʾ) of the earth. Classical theology has articulated these distinctions through metaphysical categories—substance, form, and will—without providing a unified structural explanation for why these three orders differ in the ways they do. -/- This paper develops such an explanation using the framework of (...) Symbolic Monism (SM) and Resonance Density (RD) theory. The central argument is that the three orders differ along three structurally connected dimensions: (1) their substrate-characteristic Resonance Density ceiling (RDₘₐₓ)—the maximum cross-domain symbolic integration achievable given each substrate’s physical constitution; (2) their Coherence Cost profile—the characteristic distribution of internal constraints on symbolic development; and (3) their degree of voluntary MIH-orientation—the extent to which their actual RD trajectory is self-generated rather than substrate-determined. -/- The analysis yields four principal results. First, a Substrate Constraint Theorem showing that RDₘₐₓ and degree of voluntary orientation are inversely correlated across the three orders: the substrate with the highest structural RDₘₐₓ (angels) possesses zero voluntary orientation; the substrate with the lowest structural RDₘₐₓ (humans) possesses maximal voluntary orientation. -/- Second, a philosophical account of the Khalifah Paradox—why the structurally weakest substrate is appointed as the responsible steward of creation: because the khalifah role requires freely chosen, cross-domain RD-raising, which only the most structurally open substrate can perform. -/- Third, a structural interpretation of waḥy (revelation) as cross-substrate transduction: the encoding of MIH-proximate symbolic structures in a photonic medium, their transmission through the cosmos, and their transduction into biological symbolic networks through the prophetic capacity of ḥads. -/- Fourth, a structural account of Iblīs’s refusal as an internal coherence confirmation that the degrees-of-freedom thesis is consistent with the Qurʾānic distinction between plasma-based and photonic consciousness—a confirmation that is philosophically significant precisely because the physical argument and the textual account are derived independently and found to cohere. -/- The analysis draws on plasma physics, neuromorphic photonics, and network topology to ground structural claims, while the core argument remains philosophical throughout. (shrink)

The Shahada, the first pillar of Islam, is examined through the lens of Hegelian dialectics [1] as an epistemological structure rather than a dogmatically accepted premise. Faith in Islam is argued to emerge as a logical synthesis produced by a rigorous process of negation, testing, and ontological resolution. Read dialectically, the Shahada culminates a movement from thesis (initial belief), through antithesis (systematic examination), toward synthesis (epistemic and onto- logical affirmation), situating Islamic faith within the spirit of rational inquiry. The act (...) of testimony (asy- hadu) is therefore interpreted not as a performative utterance devoid of verification, but as a declaration grounded in personal testing and epistemic validation [3]. Moreover, the linguistic structure of la ilaha illa Allah encodes a falsificatory logic analogous to Karl Popper’s principle of falsification [2], wherein universal negation (la ilaha) functions as a null hypothesis that must be exhaustively eliminated before affirmation (illa Allah) becomes intelligible. In contrast to other Abrahamic traditions in which faith begins with belief (credo) or obedience (shema), the Shahada positions testimony as the epistemic conclusion rather than the starting point of faith. (shrink)

Four Qurʾānic verses — Sūrat al-Anʿām 6:32, Sūrat al-ʿAnkabūt 29:64, Sūrat Muḥammad 47:36, and Sūrat al-Ḥadīd 57:20 — deploy an identical formula: اَلْحَيَاةُ الدُّنْيَا لَعِبٌ وَلَهْوٌ (laʿibun wa-lahwun). Standard translations render this formula as moral deprecation — “idle play and vain amusement” — yet the grammatical operator مَا ... إِلَّا (mā … illā) functions in classical Arabic not as censure but as exhaustive definitional restriction (ḥaṣr): an identification of essential constitution. -/- Taken seriously on its own linguistic terms, before evaluative (...) gloss is applied, the formula discloses a structural ontology of temporal existence. In doing so, it corrects the inadequate metaphor of worldly life as a test with the richer paradigm of worldly life as an arena: designed, consequential, intrinsically relational, and offered by ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ to beings constituted to inhabit it fully and joyfully. -/- Through careful analysis of the semantic fields of لَعِب (laʿib) and لَهْو (lahw) in classical Arabic lexicography, and drawing on the philosophical distinction between constitutive and regulative rules, seven theses are developed: -/- Worldly life is a bounded, rule-governed arena of intrinsically purposive and absorptive engagement. -/- Its cosmic rule-set operates at three ontologically distinct levels. -/- All participants are ontologically equal agents playing together in an arena constitutively structured for taʿāruf (mutual recognition). -/- لَعِب (laʿib) is categorically distinct from عَبَث (ʿabath), foreclosing nihilist readings. -/- Three distortions are condemned — over-investment, addictive absorption, and the refusal of the game — grounded in the primordial covenant of 7:172. -/- ʿIbādah (51:56) designates the correct existential orientation toward the arena. -/- Taqwā is reconceived as sportivitas: the disposition of the player who plays seriously, honestly, and joyfully in full awareness of the arena’s non-ultimacy. -/- The paper concludes with Adam’s conscious entry into worldly existence as the paradigm case of the khalīfah’s vocation — and with the theological observation that an arena designed by the Most Compassionate is not an ordeal to be survived but a gift to be inhabited. (shrink)

Al-Ḥallāj’s declaration أنا الْح ُق (Anā al-Ḥaqq, “I am the Truth/Real”) is among the most contested utterances in Islamic intellectual history. This paper advances a strictly linguistic-philosophical critique grounded in Qur’ānic structure rather than juridical or kalāmic precedent. Through morphological anal- ysis of the mubtadaʾ–khabar identity construction, semantic analysis of QS An- Nūr: 35, and structural analysis of the Shahāda’s nafy-wa-ithbāt (negation - affirmation) pattern, I demonstrate that the utterance commits a categorical in- version: it places the ego (anā) as (...) the ontological subject of what the Qur’ān consistently positions as the all-encompassing horizon of existence. The experiential content of Ḥallāj’s mystical state is not disputed; what is contested is the logical structure of its articulation — a structure that the Shahāda itself, the Qur’ān’s most concentrated formula of tawḥīd, precisely and permanently forecloses. (shrink)

Traditional discourse on the story of Adam in Paradise has been almost universally framed within a narrative of fall occasioned by the ‘sin’ of eating forbidden fruit, with the assumption that Satan lied and Adam was deceived by lies. This article offers an alternative, grammatically more parsimonious reading through strict linguistic analysis. By rigorously examining the grammatical structure of QS. Al-A‘rāf (7:20), it is found that Satan did not lie verbally: his statement is linguistically true regarding the purpose of God’s (...) prohibition. Manipulation occurs not at the propositional level but through the allowance of a false inference—Adam inverted the logic from ‘prohibited so that one may attain eternity through obedience’ to ‘prohibited because the tree is the source of eternity.’ This thesis is confirmed by two layers of intra-Qur’anic evidence. First, lexically: the Qur’an uses the word ghurūr (deception through appearance) in QS. 7:22—not kidhb (lying)—to describe how Satan led Adam astray. This lexical choice constitutes an internal confirmation that the mechanism was not verbal falsehood. Second, meta-textually: in QS. Ibrāhīm (14:22), Satan himself acknowledges having no sulṭān (coercive power) over humans—only invitation and suggestion. This means truth-based deception is not merely a sophisticated technique Satan chose, but the only instrument Satan possesses. The article further analyses the promise of malakayni (becoming angels) as a promise of biological transcendence that produces its own antithesis: Satan promised liberation from the corporeal condition, yet the consequence of transgression was precisely an acute awareness of bodily vulnerability. Drawing on QS. 2:30, the article also argues that Adam’s descent to earth was not punishment but the execution of a pre-established divine plan, accelerated by transgression yet non-punitive in character. Grice’s and Saul’s frameworks provide the theoretical foundation throughout. (shrink)

Islamic historiography in Java traditionally places Syekh Siti Jenar as an antagonist male figure executed by the Council of Wali Songo due to the teaching of Manunggaling Kawula Gusti. While standard narratives describe him as a historical figure named Sayyid Abdul Jalil, this paper proposes a radical revisionist hypothesis that this figure is likely a narrative personification of the teachings of Rabiatul Adawiyah (Basra, 713-801 AD). Rabia’s teachings on mahabbah (divine love) were transmitted to the Archipelago via the Persian-Arab trade (...) routes in the 15th century, but encountered conflict with the sharia orthodoxy of the Demak Sultanate. Through comparative etymological analysis, tracing of Sufi text transmission, and semiotic reading of mythology, this study demonstrates that "Lemah Abang" (Red Earth) is a geographical-cultural code translation for the "Basra/Persia" region (the red soil land of Rabia), while the name "Siti" is a feminization consistent with the gender of the referent figure. The conflict between Wali Songo and "Siti Jenar" is read as a systemic delegitimization strategy (strawman fallacy) against feminine Sufi teachings that emphasize love without sharia. These findings shift the debate from "individual gender distortion" to "personification of teachings for ideological delegitimization," a phenomenon supported by Eliade’s theory of archetype repetition in religious history. (shrink)

Arguments asserting the physical impossibility of the lunar splitting event (In- syaqqa al-Qamar) typically invoke a single quantity — the Gravitational Binding Energy U = 3GM2/5R — as decisive. This paper exposes a chain of epistemological assumptions concealed within that quantity: (i) the lunar mass M is not measured directly but is derived as M = GM/G, where the gravitational constant G remains the least precisely known fundamental constant in physics, carrying inter-laboratory discrepancies of up to 550 ppm after two (...) centuries of measurement; (ii) the Earth–Moon distance d, canonically obtained via Lunar Laser Ranging, rests on the unverifiable convention that the one-way speed of light is isotropic; and (iii) tidal observations constrain only the product GM d−3, not GM and d independently. Taken together, these dependencies reveal that the “impossibility” verdict is a model-laden calculation, not a directly measured fact. We then examine the Hollow Magnetic Shell hypothesis as the most parsimonious conditional explanation — given the premise that a splitting event occurred — and show that magnetic polarity reversal provides a smooth, thermally benign separation and reunion mechanism that leaves tidal forcing on Earth unchanged, requires no ejecta, and simultaneously accounts for four independently documented lunar anomalies: anomalous seismic Q-factor, high remanent magnetisation, the morphology of Rimae Ariadaeus, and the near/far crustal dichotomy. We explicitly acknowledge that the physical cause of the polarity reversal itself lies at the boundary of physical description. Testable predictions — including a directional magnetisation discontinuity across Rimae Ariadaeus — are proposed to discriminate the model from the solid-body baseline. (shrink)

Classical Newtonian mechanics painted a universe of strict causality, while quantum mechanics introduced an element of intrinsic randomness. However, a closer examination reveals that quantum mechanics, in its standard formulation, does not endorse pure indeterminism, but rather a nuanced form of constrained indeterminism. Through a detailed analysis of the Schrödinger equation, the spectral theorem, and the Feynman path integral formulation, we demonstrate how quantum theory embeds deterministic structures within an indeterministic framework. This structure finds a profound conceptual parallel in the (...) Islamic theological principle of Amr bayn al-amrayn (the matter between the two matters), a cornerstone of Shi’a theology that rejects both absolute predestination and absolute libertarian free will. By examining the quantum measurement process and its deterministic underpinnings, we propose that quantum mechanics offers a formal, physical model that mirrors this metaphysical landscape. This correlation not only highlights the coherence of a "middle way" but also suggests that reality possesses a layered ontology that transcends binary categorizations. (shrink)

Настоящая монография предлагает радикальный пересмотр интерпретации прото-семитского корня ʔil-, лежащего в основе всех семитских обозначений «бога»: аккадского ilu(m), угаритского ʾil, древнееврейского ʾēl/ʾelōhîm, арамейского ʾĕlāhā и арабского Allāh. Центральный тезис: термин «бог», применяемый к данному корню в академической литературе начиная с Гезениуса (1829), является методологическим анахронизмом — он описывает результат многовекового процесса сакрализации, а не исходное значение корня.

In this article the author aims to reveal the common grounds between Islamic philosophy and phenomenology. The focus of the paper is on comparing Mirib Sadra's views with those of Edmond Husserl and revealing their commonalities. The writer believes that the issues which can provide the yiiBMl for having this dialogue consist of the following:1. The rational soul in Islamic Philosophy and the intentionality of the mind in western phenomenology;2. Transition from the first disposition to the second in Islamic philosophy (...) and Epoche and transcendental reduction in western phenomenology;3. Man's pre-eternal promise and its renewal with the help of prophets in Islamic philosophy and "bracketing" the existence of things in western phenomenology;4. The simple and composite types of knowledge in Islamic philosophy and the suspension and ceasing of judgment in western phenomenology.5. The Sophia Prennis in Islamic philosophy and the revival of philosophy in western phenomenology. (shrink)

Although a lot of books have been written on medicine, astronomy. mathematics, Islamic philosophy, etc., not much has been written on the history of the development of research in Islamic logic. As a result, this important part of the history of Islamic thought has remained almost intact. In spite of the fact that a general picture of this field has not been portrayed yet, we have enough information to devise a tentative and general view of this discipline. The present paper (...) is devoted to providing the readers with some information concerning the development of Islamic logic. (shrink)

Seyyed Mustafa Khomeini had been trained in the school of the Transcendent Philosophy and had several innovations in Islamic philosophy. His ideas had been propounded in a big book called al-Qawa'id al-hakamiyyah, which has been lost. The writer of this paper has collected his new theories by reviewing 29 of his books. From among his 50 new philosophical ideas, 32 are related to problems in theology in its general sense which are also discussed in philosophy, existence and quiddity, mental existence, (...) the tripartite division of being, motion, substance and accident, ontology, and cause and effect. This study deals with his theories and also refers to the ideas of philosophers before him, particularly Mulla Sadra, so that, while comparing them with each other, the place of each theory is clearly revealed. The classification of Mulla Sadra's ideas in the table of contents of the book al-Hikmat al-muta'aliyyah is a great step towards compiling the history of contemporary Islamic philosophy. (shrink)

Scripture seems to command actions that our modern moral sensibilities find immoral, which poses a problem for those who take Scripture to be the word of God. Amir Saemi (2024) argues that the commands of Islamic Scripture are legal commands but not moral commands, and that legislating non-optimal laws can sometimes be morally best, if optimal laws are infeasible. Using a formal account of coordination, I evaluate this solution, and show that in order to resolve the problem, Scriptural legislation must (...) not function by introducing rewards and punishments, but instead by creating expectations about what others will do and expect others to do. I argue further that to resolve the problem, we should not think that people have gotten more virtuous; instead, when we examine the process of moral learning, we come to see why legislating non-optimal solutions can sometimes lead people to converge on the optimal one. I close with some potential worries. (shrink)

Ayaan Hirsi Ali, one of the central figures of New Atheism, recently surprised many by switching to Christianity. The reasoning prompting her change is not theological but civilizational. As a defender of individualism and free speech, she now claims that safeguarding those values requires adhering to the Judeo-Christian tradition that spawned them. Although I find many elements of Hirsi Ali’s current position sensible, I argue that her justification of religion rests on an overblown inference, since we can and should harness (...) the best parts of the Judeo-Christian tradition while leaving out the worst. Conservative thinkers may deem such alterations incautious, but the truth is that most people already adhere selectively to the Bible’s ideas. What remains, in my estimate, is to come to terms with this in our official self-conceptions. (shrink)

One version of the problem of hell when posed against Islamic theism runs something like this: (1) if the model of hell in the Islamic theistic tradition involves eternal conscious torment, then, plausibly, Islamic theism is false, (2) the model of hell in the Islamic theistic tradition involves eternal conscious torment, (3) therefore, plausibly, Islamic theism is false. Significantly, however, and in contrast to the traditional soteriological model, the oft-labelled staunch traditionalist medieval Muslim theologian, Taqī al-Dīn Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328 (...) CE), controversially argued for salvific universalism. In this article, I critically examine the three theological arguments Ibn Taymiyya offers for universalism. Following an assessment of these arguments, I conclude that although independently inconclusive, when taken together they constitute a plausible cumulative case for universalism and thus reason to dismiss the problem of hell for Islamic theism. (shrink)

This article has begun pondering over the question of Islamic identity by narrating an ancient Muslim philosophers’ quotation. It could also be concluded with a poem from a modern Muslim philosopher Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938): “I have lived a long, long while,” said a fallen shore; “What I am know as ill as I knew of yore.” Then swiftly advanced wave from the Sea upshot; “If I roll, I am,” it said; “if I rest, I am not.” Both the first and (...) the last narration insist on a mobile and mosaic identity. Another side of Islamic Identity is related to Ummah, which is also flexible. The Quran describes immigration as an inevitable part of civilization. It was concerned with two great events during the prophet’s time – immigration to Ethiopia and emigration to Medina. It tries to connect worldly and spiritual interests in this topic where a kind of unity in plurality, the secular and sacred affairs meet. It notes that Muslims may migrate because of worldly needs but continue on with unworldly demands; and, indeed, it is possible to combine them rationally. So, focusing on story of immigration in the Quran helps one to better understand the Muslims’ mentality as well as help Muslims to deal with non-Muslims. Obviously immigration consists of some risks; sacrifices for immigrants and hospitality for hosts; but it is also full of opportunities as supported by the Quran. It is related to realizing the high capacity of humankind in facing different cultures and traditions; a mirror for self-knowing and other-knowing; the call to reform morally; to redefine and expand ethical values, to improve the social sphere and change the cultural monologue to dialogue. Finally immigration is a new way to look at God and religion; a new search for the definition of piety and reflects significant different perspectives from the light of the Quran, a misunderstood book in the West! (shrink)

Can the human rights we recognize today be derived from the central Muslim text, the Qur’an? I will argue that they can, but that this requires reconceptualising the believer’s relationship to revelation. On the standard view, the believer is bound by all prescriptions in the Qur’an. By contrast, I will argue that the Qur’an prescribes two distinct kinds of norms—thin norms and thick norms—and only the latter have normative force here and now. With this novel framework for understanding Qur’anic norms (...) on the table, I address two barriers to grounding human rights in the Qur’an: the problem of omission, according to which there are rights that we want to recognize that are seemingly missing in the Qur’an, and the problem of rejection, according to which the Qur’an seems committed to rejecting some rights that we do want to recognize. I will argue that both problems can be overcome. (shrink)

Can one who takes Scripture to be the word of God, and who takes their independent moral judgements to be reliable, reconcile such beliefs with Scriptural injunctions that appear to permit and require evil actions? That is the Problem of Divinely Prescribed Evil. An ethics-first solution takes our independent moral judgements to be reliable and attempts to reconcile them with seemingly divinely prescribed evil. Amir Saemi (2024) offers a prima facie promising ethics-first solution: take Scriptural injunctions to be not moral, (...) but legal. In this paper, I critically examine this proposal. After raising worries about Saemi’s argument for his solution, I explore his analogy with the ethics and laws of war, raise three concerns for his solution, and present a dilemma which is, ultimately, an argument against Saemi’s solution. I end with some suggestions for further inquiry into this recalcitrant problem, and analytic philosophy of religion about Islam. (shrink)

A translation of al-Samarqandi's Bustan al-'arifin - a tenth-century religio-legal primer to navigating the chaos and conflict of everyday life - accompanied by an introduction to its literary and historical contexts, and an accessible commentary exploring the larger themes encountered in the work.

Two important texts in the Sufi tradition made available together in English for the first time.

This is the first monograph in English devoted to the central Qur'anic idea of the fitra: that there is a way that human beings simply are, by nature or creation. Uncovering the medieval Islamic philosophical tradition's engagement with fitra, the author explores important and wider contested questions in contemporary ethics.

This work highlights Christian scripture and ritual within a broader Middle Eastern and cross-cultural framework, drawing parallels with Judaic, Islamic, Egyptian, and other traditions in which sacred space and bodily form converge to engender a symbolic and theological embodiment of divine revelation and perception. By pointing out the shared physiological symbolism in religious architecture, ritual, and scripture, it shifts the perspective towards an externalized and directly experienced spiritual dimension and offers a novel glimpse into aspects of embodied theology and divine (...) perception. The demonstrated continuity of corporeal imagery, scriptural symbolism, and incorporation of the human form in ritual and architecture contributes to the areas of manuscript studies, comparative theology, and the history of religious thought in the Middle East. The focus on the body as a transhistorical and cross-cultural medium and site of divine manifestation presented in this study offers a model for multidisciplinary research on embodiment and cognition across the monotheistic religions and beyond. Using the methodological approach of symbolic and semantic analysis, the observed converging patterns are interpreted as examples of an embodied theology and hermeneutics that bridges metaphor and physiological processes. The work highlights the congruence between key scriptural terminology and symbolism, such as lamp, crystal, and niche, across cultures — illustrated by passages from the Qurʾanic Light Verse and Revelation — and suggests the possible theological implications of detailed neuro-anatomical knowledge. The results provide a new interdisciplinary framework for comparative theology that incorporates linguistic analysis, theological exegesis, neuroanatomy, and cognitive science. They underscore the centrality of corporeality as a neglected yet crucial theological category in the Abrahamic religions and emphasize the experiential dimension of revelation. (shrink)

One finds different expressions of divine omnipresence in the Arabic-Islamic tradition. In the Qur’an, the suggestion of a superior divine world is counterbalanced by the notion of God as continuously active and omnipresent, and Kalām, mysticism, and philosophy interpret this idea in various ways. The Absolute is both present and transcendent. Omnipresence, in so far as it is presence, must necessarily be thought ‘in’ or ‘in relation to’ something and transcendence necessarily refers to the divine presence in the world. The (...) major difficulty that authors (e.g. Avicenna and Ibn ‘Arabī) have to face is then reconciling the otherness of the Principle with Its (omni-)presence in the world: the thought of God is about continuity, and includes mediation, but also about the caesura between God and the created world. (shrink)

This study undertakes a profound exploration of the mystical teachings of Nahj al-Balagha, attributed to Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib, and their transformative influence on the existential philosophy of Mulla Sadra, the architect of hikmat al-muta’aliya (transcendent philosophy). Through an exhaustive comparative textual analysis, it examines core mystical concepts in Nahj al-Balagha—including tawhid (unity of existence), fana (annihilation of the self), suluk (spiritual journey), and tazkiya (ethical purification)—and their resonance with Mulla Sadra’s metaphysical doctrines, such as harakat al-jawhariyyah (substantial motion), (...) tashkik al-wujud (gradation of existence), nafs al-kamilah (perfect self), and his epistemology of mystical intuition (kashf). Drawing on 34 authoritative sources, encompassing classical Islamic texts, Persian and Arabic scholarly works, and contemporary interpretations by luminaries like Allama Tabataba’i, Ayatollah Javadi Amoli, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, and William Chittick, this study elucidates points of convergence, divergence, and influence. The analysis reveals that Nahj al-Balagha’s mystical insights provided a spiritual and intellectual foundation for Mulla Sadra’s synthesis of rational philosophy, theological doctrine, and mystical intuition, profoundly enriching Islamic metaphysics. This dialogue not only bridges spiritual and philosophical discourses but also offers enduring insights into existential questions of being, selfhood, divine unity, and ethical practice, with significant implications for contemporary philosophical, theological, and interfaith discourse. (shrink)

Today is 9/11. On this day, September 11, 2001, the Islamic State’s allied force, Al-Qaeda Militant Command, carried out coordinated air attacks on several important places in the United States. They were fully successful in their attacks on the World Trade Center’s Twin Towers in New York City. The 9/11 plane attacks became one of the most significant battles in the modern history of warfare. This attack was a deeply tragic event in the history of the United States of America. (...) On the other hand, however, the 9/11 air attack is regarded in some perspectives as a glorious event in Islamic history, comparable to the celebrated battles of the Muslim-Christian crusades in the past, which are remembered as part of the golden era of Islamic religious mission. When President George W. Bush received information about the attack, he immediately addressed the situation. In the midst of America’s shaken state, President Bush declared that those who are not with us are with the terrorists. The 9/11 attacks were a one way short but deadly battle that caused mass casualties, widespread destruction, and global consequences. The Islamic forces had a foolproof plan, believing they would succeed and initiate an Islamic mission in America—envisioning a nation in ruins, overcome by darkness, ignorance, and barbarism. In response, the United States declared a global military campaign, known as the Global War on Terrorism, and launched several armed missions. After many years of war, terrorism was ultimately weakened, and the forces of injustice lost their war game. In the aftermath of 9/11, America’s response was not limited to armed campaigns alone. The true lesson of 9/11 is that American society does not succumb to the injustice of crime and terrorism. The state of humanity cannot be compromised by injustice, crimes, or acts of terror. (shrink)