Local hidden-variable model of singlet-state correlations discussed in Czachor (Acta Phys Polon A 139:70, 2021a) is shown to be a particular case of an infinite hierarchy of local hidden-variable models based on an infinite hierarchy of calculi. Violation of Bell-type inequalities can be interpreted as a ‘confusion of languages’ problem, a result of mixing different but neighboring levels of the hierarchy. Mixing of non-neighboring levels results in violations beyond the Tsirelson bounds.

Are artefacts, that is, human-made objects, distinct from the natural things that they are made out of? For example, is a chair a thing distinct from the pieces of wood used in making it? This question is intensely debated in contemporary metaphysics, but it is little known that there was an equally heated and sophisticated debate concerning this issue in the late Middle Ages. This book provides the first comprehensive reconstruction, analysis, and evaluation of this discussion, looking at both the (...) most famous figures such as William of Ockham as well as dozens of previously unstudied texts available in manuscript form only. (shrink)

Whether or not we call a love-like relationship with robots true love, some people may feel and claim that, for them, it is a sufficient substitute for love relationship. The love relationship between humans has a special place in our social life. On the grounds of both morality and law, our significant other can expect special treatment. It is understandable that, precisely because of this kind of relationship, we save our significant other instead of others or will not testify against (...) her/him. How as a society should we treat love-like relationships humans with robots? Based on the assumption that robots do not have an inner life and are not moral patients, I defend the thesis that this kind of relationship should be protected by criminal law. (shrink)

Robots are becoming more visible parts of our life, a situation which prompts questions about their place in our society. One group of issues that is widely discussed is connected with robots’ moral and legal status as well as their potential rights. The question of granting robots rights is polarizing. Some positions accept the possibility of granting them human rights whereas others reject the notion that robots can be considered potential rights holders. In this paper, I claim that robots will (...) never have all human rights, even if we accept that they are morally equal to humans. I focus on the role of embodiment in the content of the law. I claim that even relatively small differences in the ontologies of entities could lead to the need to create new sets of rights. I use the example of Neanderthals to illustrate that entities similar to us might have required different legal statuses. Then, I discuss the potential legal status of human-like robots. (shrink)

The article deals with one of the facets of a hitherto almost completely unexplored subject: the late medieval debate about the ontological status of numbers. It focuses on one of the most popular arguments in favor of a realist view of number. The realist view holds that a number adds a new form over and above the things that it numbers. The argument for the view is based on the thesis that since the categories are a classification of extramental reality, (...) and number belongs to the category of Quantity, it, together with its form, must have extramental existence. The second part of the paper is devoted to an exposition and analysis of various rebuttals of this argument advanced by critics of realism about numbers. Throughout the whole discussion, the paper also gives an evaluation of the dialectical moves made by the participants in the debate. (shrink)

The article explores the misuse of artificial intelligence (AI) to generate pornographic images, including child pornography, through so-called deep nudes—applications that create realistic nude images from photographs without the consent of individuals. This phenomenon has serious psychological and social impacts on victims, especially children, who can become targets of cyberbullying, blackmail and other forms of abuse. The paper presents the results of a survey on the use of artificial intelligence among Czech primary and secondary school students (2024), which involved over (...) 27,336 respondents. Deep nude photos with the help of AI were created by 2.77% of Czech primary and secondary school pupils. Deep nude is more likely to be generated by boys, who are 3.56 times more likely to generate a deep nude photo than girls. There are also differences based on age and type of school, but these differences are negligible. (shrink)

Late Middle Ages in the Latin West witnessed a huge surge of interest in the metaphysical status of numbers. The key question in the debate that ensued was whether numbers should be posited in the extramental reality or rather in the human mind. After a brief sketch of the realist view of numbers and its rationale, this paper analyzes three particularly popular objections raised against the realist position, all of which aim to prove that positing numbers as things in the (...) extramental reality leads to unacceptable or absurd consequences. (shrink)

The recent developments in applications of artificial intelligence bring back discussion about risks posed by AI. Among immediate risks that need to be tackled here and now, there is also a possible problem of existential threats related to Artificial General Intelligence (AGI). There is a discussion on how to mitigate those risks by appropriate regulations. It seems that one commonly accepted assumption is that the problem is global, and thus, it needs to be tackled first of all on an international (...) level. In this paper, I argue that national criminal laws should also be considered one of the possible regulatory tools for mitigating threats posed by AGI. I propose to enact AGI crimes that complement the varieties of legal responses to existential risks that might motivate and speed up further regulatory changes. (shrink)

Uncontrolled access to information on the Internet has many advantages, but it also leads to the phenomenon of fake news. Fake news is dangerous in many spheres, including that of health. For example, we are facing an increase in the amount of vaccine hesitancy. This has been w considered by the World Health Organization in 2019 as one of the greatest threats to public health. This specific phenomenon is linked with the spread of information on the Internet around that issue. (...) In this paper, I discuss a proposition of new crime, which has the aim of fighting medical fake news by stopping its spread. This proposition should be considered only if other non-criminal measures are inefficient. The proposal is “Whoever publicly disseminates information evidently discrepant with medical knowledge is subject to a penalty.”. (shrink)

This work advocates for an alternative to the principle of charity when teaching critical thinking or informal logic. It provides a brief reconstruction of the principle in the context of argumentation before moving to demonstrate some of the shortcomings associated with different approaches to it in the literature. It argues for placing emphasis not on charity but on the interpretative competence that underlies charity. Doing so avoids the difficulties associated with the principle as such while still fostering the conditions for (...) exploring the kinds of advanced interpretations the pursuit of charity typically yields. (shrink)

This short work is a contribution to the literature on practices involving artificial intelligence in the academic writing classroom. It presents a centerpiece exercise developed for philosophy and cognitive science students that introduces them to the publishing process. It makes use of artificial intelligence (ChatGPT) to generate reviews for short papers written by students, which can then be used as material for students to address—requiring them to make revisions and to reply to the review. It serves the dual purpose of (...) engaging students with their own writing while exercising competences relating to the peer review process. The exercise itself is compelling, and importantly it is easy to execute. No special skills or resources are required on the part of the instructor, making it accessible irrespective of technical ability or institutional resources. (shrink)

The inferentialism due to Robert Brandom presents a compelling normative-deontic picture of language and discursive practices, and as such it is well positioned to address phenomena like lying. This short work outlines a simple account of how lying can be conceptualized within that framework. To that end, the basic Brandomian position is extended to include a novel type of status – namely, pseudo-commitments, which are unique in their being non-binding. The traditional definition of lying is then given a status-oriented form, (...) such that lying consists in presenting a pseudo-commitment with the intention for it to be attributed as a standard commitment. Importantly, this can be articulated in our scorekeeping practices, which is demonstrated with three example exchanges – one featuring an undetected lie, one featuring a detected lie, and one featuring a bald-faced lie. Though simple, the account works and invites extension to other similar phenomena, like sarcasm, acting, bullshit, etc. The notion of pseudo-commitment may also find application outside of the inferentialist context. (shrink)

This paper examines the ontological status of possible words by reassessing Hawthorne and Lepore’s argument from morphological productivity, in particular their example involving iterated forms of ‘anti-missile.’ While their position has been challenged by Miller on the grounds that these are merely possible rather than actual words, I explore a deeper concern: that such iterated morphological constructions may not qualify as words in the first place. Drawing on work involving lexicalization and holistic processing, I argue that extreme cases of iterated (...) expressions, like those involving numerous repetitions of ‘anti-’ in ‘anti-missile,’ fail to meet the cognitive and linguistic criteria for wordhood. Instead, they function more like phrases. I then propose an alternative, grounded in coining and modulating reference, which allows for an infinite set of possible words without appealing to problematic morphological recursion. This reframing salvages the philosophical intuition that there is a significant set of unarticulated words, while avoiding the issues inherent in Hawthorne and Lepore’s original formulation. (shrink)

ABSTRACTThis paper examines the theory of artefacts presented by the 15th-century thinker Paul of Venice, paying special attention to the views of authors often referred to as ‘nominalists’ (e.g. O...

İslam tarihinde Müslüman topluluk içinde ilk fikrî ve fiilî anlaşmazlıklar Hz. Peygamberin (s.a.v.) vefatının ardından başlamış daha sonra Hz. Osman ve ardından Hz. Ali döneminde olayların büyümesiyle Hâricîlik mezhebi tarih sahnesine çıkmıştır. Sıffîn savaşını bitirmeyi ve Müslümanlar arasında barışı temin etmeyi hedefleyen Tahkîm olayı başka bir ayrılıkla neticelenmiş, Kur’ân’ı-Kerîm’in hükümlerine uyulmadığı gerekçesiyle Müslüman topluluktan büyük bir grup ayrılarak Nehrevan’a çekilmiştir. Çoğu taşradan gelmiş, eğitim seviyesi düşük askerlerinden oluşan ve daha sonra Hâricîler diye isimlendirilen bu grup, kendi içlerinde de anlaşamamış pek (...) çoğu aşırılık yanlısı bir tavırla Emevî ve Abbasî Devletleri döneminde isyan etmiş ve muhtelif şiddet olaylarına karışmıştır. Hicrî üçüncü asrın sonlarında İbâdiyye hariç, başta Ezârika olmak üzere aşırılığa meyleden veya şiddete başvuran Hâricî gruplar dağılıp yok olmuştur. Hâricî kitleler içerisinde ortaya çıkmış olan İbâdiyye kendi dönüşümünü sağlayarak ve hatta fikir ve yöntemlerindeki yumuşaklık sebebiyle halktan gerekli desteği alarak bir yandan Kuzey Afrika’da 132 yıl hüküm süren Rüstemîler Devletini kurarken diğer yandan da fikrî bünyesini inşa etmiştir. Günümüzde Kuzey Afrika, Umman ve Zanzibar’da yedi milyona yakın nüfusa sahip olan bu mezhep pek çok açıdan etüt edilmeyi hak eden bir topluluk ve bir fikir akımıdır. İbâdiyye, hicrî ikinci asra dayanan yazılı eserleri ve yüzyıllarca biriktirdiği deneyimi ile İslam dininin inanç, davranış ve siyaset esaslarının tedvini için sosyo-politik zeminin anlaşılmasında değerli verilere sahiptir. Öte yandan mezhebin her açıdan objektif olarak ele alındığını söylemek mümkün görünmemektedir. Hicrî üçüncü asrın sonlarından itibaren yazılan fırak ve makālât türü eserlerde çeşitli gerekçelerle Hâricîlik için kullanılan pek çok yerici ifade, aidiyeti iyice araştırılmadan İbâdiyye’yi teşmil edecek şekilde kullanılmıştır ve halen de kullanılmaya devam etmektedir. Burada asıl dikkat edilmesi gereken önemli bir husus, ehl-i biꜤdat yahut ehl-i küfre ait olduğu değerlendirilen pek çok şahıs, düşünce veya ekolün ilmi açıdan tevsiki yapılmadan İbâdiyye’ye nispet edilmiş olabileceğidir. Bu makalede İbâdiyye’nin tarihi derinliklerine inilerek hem inanç sahasına yeni birtakım fikir veya tespitleri kazandırmak hem de mezhebin doğru bir şekilde anlaşılmasına katkı sunmak için İbâdiyye’ye nispet edilen bazı fikir, şahıs yahut alt grupların durumu ele alınmıştır. Bu amaçla temel fırak ve makālât eserleri, İbâdiyye’nin muteber klasik ve çağdaş kaynaklarıyla mukayeseli olarak kullanılmış ve İbâdiyye’ye nispeti tartışmalı olan alt grupların mezhebe aidiyeti tespit edilmeye çalışılmıştır. (shrink)

Foundational theories of meaning, and the broader metasemantic projects they contribute to, promise to answer that seemingly simple yet intractable question of what meaning consists in and where it comes from. Naturally, they build upon expressions that we already know and recognize to develop their positions. This focus on language as we know it, however, leaves aside the no less significant matter of language in terms of possible expressions - the strange and distant expanses of language beyond our everyday stock (...) of expressions. This work sets out to explore possibility in the context of the meaning of simple expressions. In the process, words, phrases, and sentences are thoroughly explicated as types of expressions before being leveraged to engineer unique and unusual possible words. These exotic possibilities are then confronted with two major positions on meaning in philosophy, introducing novel difficulties and suggesting the significance of this otherwise neglected perspective on language. (shrink)

The debate on alternative punishments appears to be stagnating. The impasse may be overcome if we consider humans from a different philosophical perspective. If we answer differently the question of who we are punishing, we open new possibilities regarding the question of how we punish. In particular, by applying the extended mind thesis we can arrive at interesting outcomes and reopen the debate on alternative punishments. According to this theory, external artifacts—such as smartphones—can be considered part of our minds. In (...) this article, I defend the thesis that restricting access to personal technologies that are a part of one's self should be considered a form of punishment. Thus, a human who is considered from an extended perspective can be punished in a new way. (shrink)

The recent developments in applications of artificial intelligence bring back discussion about risks posed by AI. Among immediate risks that need to be tackled here and now, there is also a possible problem of existential threats related to Artificial General Intelligence (AGI). There is a discussion on how to mitigate those risks by appropriate regulations. It seems that one commonly accepted assumption is that the problem is global, and thus, it needs to be tackled first of all on an international (...) level. In this paper, I argue that national criminal laws should also be considered one of the possible regulatory tools for mitigating threats posed by AGI. I propose to enact AGI crimes that complement the varieties of legal responses to existential risks that might motivate and speed up further regulatory changes. (shrink)

In the ethical literature on robot design, considerable attention has been devoted to the risks that human-like robots pose to humans. In particular, the resemblance of robots to humans has been associated with concerns about social disruption, deception, and potential harm, leading some authors to argue for restrictions or bans in certain contexts. However, while the ethical significance of human-like form has been widely recognized for humans, significantly less attention has been paid to the implications of animal-like robots from the (...) perspective of nonhuman animals and human–animal relations. This paper addresses that gap by examining how the design and deployment of animal-like robots may affect animals both directly and indirectly. We argue that the use of animal form in robotics is not ethically neutral, as it can shape human perceptions of animals, influence patterns of interaction, and potentially contribute to harms such as mislearning, objectification, and alienation. By shifting the focus from human-centered concerns to the impact on animals, we identify a set of ethically relevant risks associated with animal-like robots and analyze their broader implications for human–animal relations. On this basis, we propose preliminary guidelines aimed at supporting the responsible design and use of such technologies. (shrink)

The ability to suffer, in the case of artificial entities, is often viewed as a moral turning point—once detected, there is no going back, and the moral landscape is irreversibly altered. The presence of entities capable of suffering imposes moral and legal obligations on humans. It is therefore unsurprising that many have urged caution in pursuing artificial suffering, with some even proposing a moratorium. In this paper, however, I argue that the emergence of artificial suffering need not entail moral disaster. (...) On the contrary, I defend its development and contend that it may be a necessary feature of superintelligent robots. I suggest that artificial suffering could be essential for enabling human-like ethics in machines, bridging the retribution gap, and functioning as a control mechanism to mitigate existential risks. Rather than constraining research in this area, I maintain that work on artificial suffering should be actively intensified. (shrink)

This short work presents a popular fringe theory as a source of case studies for use in teaching informal logic in an introductory course. It puts forward ancient astronaut theory as the candidate source, together with a characterization of why it fits the bill. The televised material associated with that theory is well suited to being used as case studies given that they are easy to follow, contain a surprising number of arguments and fallacies, and keep students reliably engaged. The (...) paper includes an overview of the forms of argumentation and fallacies that these cases may be used to teach, along with a sketch of how to best implement them in the classroom. (shrink)

In recent years a lot of metaphilosophical attention has been paid to the role of thought experiments in philosophical inquiry. According to the popular picture, thought experiments are among the most prominent methods for conceptual analysis. However, it is also often claimed that thought experiments in ethics differ from those that are used in other fields of philosophy as being of a different nature—they are not about the concepts, but rather about the things in the world (what those things exactly (...) are depends on the particular metaethical theory one subscribes to). In the paper I argue that this claim is wrong. Conceptual analysis is of a huge value to ethics for it substantially helps to clarify the concepts one uses while making a moral judgment. It is very often the case that the apparent moral disagreement between two subjects turns out to be superficial since it is rooted in the misunderstanding on the conceptual level, for example when one uses some concept equivocally. Moreover, through thought experiments conceptual analysis can help to bring out the tacit assumptions that relate to the concepts involved. (shrink)

Despite years of efforts to combat disinformation, we remain far from a satisfactory set of solutions. The rise of generative AI, which enables the creation of highly credible fake content at scale, suggests that the problem is likely to grow even more severe. Lessons from the recent pandemic also call for a reconsideration of how disinformation should be addressed. This paper proposes a new approach that focuses not only on regulating everyone who spreads false information, but also on those who (...) hold epistemic power – individuals with the capacity to shape what others know or believe. Such a strategy has the potential to move the debate forward, as it avoids the most common objection to disinformation regulation: the fear of widespread censorship. The paper argues that an individual’s epistemic position can justifiably differentiate their legal duties, and that those who possess epistemic power should bear corresponding legal – specifically, criminal – responsibility for the abuse of that power in spreading disinformation. (shrink)

Communication between humans and animals is improving due to advancements in Artificial Intelligence. Numerous potential positive and negative ethical implications are associated with such tools. This paper explores AI communication with animals as a potential catalyst for a moral revolution. How humans treat animals could be transformed through improved mutual communication. Two mechanisms that support this thesis have been identified. The first is the neutralization of epistemological limitations; we might treat animals better because we understand them better. The second is (...) amplification of anthropomorphism; we might treat animals better because they appear more human-like. These two mechanisms could change the moral status of animals. Changes in moral norms regarding animals may be complex, as some animals might be included in the moral circle, others might receive stronger confirmation of their place within it, and some might gain higher status than before. This paper also discusses potential risks related to moral status regarding AI communication. (shrink)

The paper concerns the origin and early stage of development of the Center for Interdisciplinary Studies at the Pontifical Academy of Theology in Kraków. Center for Interdisciplinary Studies was founded by Michał Heller and Józef Życiński in the late 1970s. It was an informal institution which focused on conducting scientific activity in the area of philosophy of nature, relationship between mathematical & natural sciences and philosophy, history of science, as well as relationships between science and religion. In this paper I (...) would like to present how this institution developed, I will discuss various forms of its activity and discuss—very generally—what kind of philosophy was promoted by M. Heller, J. Życiński as well as their pupils and close associates. An important part of the paper will also concern the Center for Interdisciplinary Studies as a unique institution, which has developed—in difficult historical period in Poland—philosophical research in the spirit of freedom and respect for the new achievements of science, and also promoted interdisciplinary dialogue between scientists and philosophers. (shrink)

Using robots in the military contexts is problematic at many levels. There are social, legal, and ethical issues that should be discussed first before their wider deployment. In this paper, we focus on an additional problem: their human likeness. We claim that military robots should not look like humans. That design choice may bring additional risks that endanger human lives and by that contradicts the very justification for deploying robots at war, which is decreasing human deaths and injuries. We discuss (...) two threats—epistemological and patient. Epistemological one is connected with the risk of mistaking robots for humans due to the limited ways of getting information about the external world, which may be amplified by the rush and need to fight with robots in distance. The patient threat is related to the developing attachment to robots, that in military contexts may cause additional deaths by the hesitance to sacrifice robots in order to save humans in peril or risking human life to save robots. (shrink)

One of the distinguishing features of Alasdair MacIntyre’s political theorising is his trenchant critique of the modern state. The article aims to explore the underlying reasons behind MacIntyre’s antistatism. Beginning with MacIntyre’s critique of the traditional arguments justifying political obligation, it then proceeds to the crucial issue of politics of common good. The author argues that MacIntyre rejects the modern state as an instrument of politics of common good mainly for two main reasons: 1) the close partnership between the modern (...) state and capitalism; 2) the bureaucratic and often unjustly coercive character of the modern state. The article concludes with several polemical remarks concerning MacIntyre’s position. (shrink)

Employing the tools of biographical sociology, this paper analyses the life narratives of two East European intellectuals: Hungarian-born Ágnes Heller and Polish-born Andrzej Walicki. Both scholars, whose trajectories display striking parallels, emigrated first to Australia and then to the United States, returning only in old age to their countries of origin. Their academic paths are interpreted through the concept of the ‘deep story’, understood as the emotional core of a worldview. Although Heller and Walicki left for different reasons, both were (...) academic sojourners – individuals who longed for their homelands, never fully integrated into the university cultures of the receiving countries, and grappled with cultural contact and political entanglements beyond academia. This paper contributes to intellectual history by examining homegrown academic success, expulsion, attempts at ‘homemaking’ abroad, and eventual return, while also offering insight into humanities careers that remain deeply rooted in national cultures and embedded within broader intellectual traditions. (shrink)

Despite the fact that it was heated and sophisticated, the debate concerning the metaphysical status of numbers in the late medieval Latin West (ca. 1250–1350) remains largely a terra incognita. This paper focuses on one of the questions faced by realists about numbers: thinkers positing that a number is a distinct thing over and above the numbered things. The question is: Are numbers relational entities? On the face of it, the answer seems to be a straightforward ‘no’, given that Aristotle (...) classifies number in the category of quantity, which, from at least the times of Boethius, was almost universally considered to be of a non-relational nature. However, as I show, the matter is far from being simple, since the textual evidence clearly shows that there were thinkers challenging this received view; indeed, as the paper demonstrates, some thinkers, for example, Francis of Meyronnes, argued that not only number but indeed the whole category of quantity should be reclassified from a non-relational to a relational one. The paper goes over some of the most interesting proofs advanced by the proponents of the relational view of number and their criticism by the defenders of the more traditional, non-relational view. (shrink)

Despite the fact that it was heated and sophisticated, the debate concerning the metaphysical status of numbers in the late medieval Latin West (ca. 1250–1350) remains largely a terra incognita. This paper focuses on one of the questions faced by realists about numbers: thinkers positing that a number is a distinct thing over and above the numbered things. The question is: Are numbers relational entities? On the face of it, the answer seems to be a straightforward ‘no’, given that Aristotle (...) classifies number in the category of quantity, which, from at least the times of Boethius, was almost universally considered to be of a non-relational nature. However, as I show, the matter is far from being simple, since the textual evidence clearly shows that there were thinkers challenging this received view; indeed, as the paper demonstrates, some thinkers, for example, Francis of Meyronnes, argued that not only number but indeed the whole category of quantity should be reclassified from a non-relational to a relational one. The paper goes over some of the most interesting proofs advanced by the proponents of the relational view of number and their criticism by the defenders of the more traditional, non-relational view. (shrink)

This paper is focused on one of the key questions constituting the medieval debate about the ontological status of artefacts, which has to do with the productivity of art. We ordinarily speak about artefacts, such as statues or chairs, as produced by their artificers, and Aristotle describes art in general as a productive habit. In the first part of the paper, I look at how the proponents of the realist view of artefacts argue that the productivity of art can only (...) be explained if we endorse their view, on which by producing an artefact an artificer brings about a new thing in the world, which is distinct from the natural things used in its production. I then turn to the reductionist account of artefacts and examine how its proponents want to show that the productivity of art can be preserved without positing that an artefact must be a new thing in the world, distinct from its natural components. In the final part of the paper, I look at one of the further corollaries of this debate, which has to do with the connection between the productivity of art and natural change. (shrink)

Kelami tartışmaların Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’in anlaşılma biçimleriyle ilişki olabildiği bilinen bir gerçekliktir. İçerisinde yoruma açık müteşabih âyetlerin bulunduğu bir kutsal metin ve bu metni kaynak olarak kullanan bir ilim açısından bu, son derece anlaşılabilir bir durumdur. Ancak bir âyetin içerisinde nerede vakfedilip cümlenin noktalanması ve nerede vasledilmesi gerektiğine dair bir ihtilafın büyük itikadi ayrılıklarla sonuçlanması metnin ve tartışmaların hassasiyetine dair aşırılığa varan bir manzara oluşturmaktadır. Dahası özellikle rivayetlere dayalı bir ihtilaftan büyük bir kelam tartışması çıkması Kelam gibi kesinlik arayışı içinde olan (...) bir ilim için problemli bir durumdur. Böylesi bir tartışmanın Âl-i İmrân 3/7 ve Kasas 28/68 âyetleri etrafında cereyan ettiği düşünülmektedir. Ancak meselenin derinine inilmeden hükme varılması aldatıcı olacaktır. Bu nedenle kapsamlı bir akademik çalışmaya ihtiyaç vardır. Bu iki âyetten özellikle Âl-i İmrân suresindeki âyet hakkında bol miktarda ihtilaf mevcuttur. Bu âyetteki durağı büyük kıraat otoritelerinden Muhammed b. Tayfûr es-Secâvendî vakf-ı lazım (mîm durağı) olarak adlandırmış ve birçok kıraat alimi, müfessir ve mütekellim burada durulmasını zorunlu kabul etmiştir. Durulması zorunlu olan yerin neresi olduğuna dair ihtilaf bulunması âyetin anlaşılması açısından problem arz etmektedir. Durak lafzatullahtan sonra yapıldığında “müteşabihlerin tevilini yalnızca Allah bilir” anlamı ortaya çıkarken “er-rasihûne fi’l-‘ilm” ibaresinden sonra yapıldığında “müteşabihlerin tevilini Allah ve ilimde derinleşmiş kimseler bilir” anlamı oluşmaktadır. Sahabeden gelen rivayetler her iki okuyuşun da ilk Müslüman nesil arasında yer bulduğunu göstermektedir. Sahabe neslinde Hz. Âişe, İbn Ömer ve İbn Mes‘ûd ve sonrasında selefin çoğunluğu ilk görüşü benimserken İbn Abbas ikinci anlayışı savunmuştur. Sahabe devrinden uzun bir süre sonra sistemleşen itikadi gruplarsa sahabeden gelen rivayetlere dayanarak yaklaşımlarını oluşturmuş ve bu yaklaşımlar birtakım itikadi sonuçlar doğururken kelami ekoller üzerinde yapılacak bir zihniyet okumasına veri sağlamıştır. Tercihler daha ziyade rivayetler, akli çıkarımlar ve bağlamsal analizler etrafında şekillenmiş, çoğunlukla mezhepsel tek tip bir yönelim ortaya konmamıştır. Bunun tek bir istisnası Şîa’nın Ahbârî ekolüdür. Ahbârîler’in yaklaşımında müteşabihlerin tevili ve vahiy hakkında taşıdıkları kelami tutumlar belirleyici olmuştur. Kıraat tercihleri üzerine kelami yönelimlere dayalı olarak tartışmaların yapıldığı bir diğer âyetin Kasas 28/68 olduğu düşünülmektedir. Mukayeseli metin incelemesi yaparak ulaştığımız neticeler bir âyetteki durağın yeri gibi küçük bir meseleden büyük bir kelam ihtilafı çıkıp çıkmadığını ve ekollerin yaklaşımlarının tutarlı-tutarsız yönlerini ortaya koyarak bir zihin analizi yapmayı amaçlamaktadır. (shrink)

The aim of this paper is to examine the theoretical architecture of semantic atomism and its consequences with respect to natural language. In particular, it looks to explore the notion of possible concepts using the fundamental distinction between simple and complex concepts and expressions in Jerry Fodor’s atomism. The distinction is exploited to produce an unusual type of concept referred to as a correlate, which effectively mirrors complex concepts while maintaining a distinct underlying structure. Though harmless in and of themselves, (...) their presence in the context of polymorphemic expressions suggests that atomism harbors a tacit and unintuitive form of polysemy that is problematic in its own right and that leads to other complications, some of which may be demonstrated on the example of communication. These issues are tied to the way atomism is structured, and although they seem to have gone largely unnoticed, they appear to bear negatively on the adequacy of atomism where natural language is concerned. (shrink)

Richard Rorty był intelektualistą zdecydowanie świeckim, zdeklarowanym ateistą i antyklerykałem. Pomimo tego w jego wizji utopii liberalnej odnaleźć można pewne tropy, które wskazują na jej związki z religią. W niniejszym artykule staram się zrekonstruować powody, dla których Rorty tak krytycznie ocenia rolę religii w demokracji liberalnej. Podkreślam przy tym, że są one osadzone głównie w specyficznie rozumianym antyautorytaryzmie amerykańskiego filozofa. Następnie zaś przechodzę do wskazania powiązań między projektem liberalnej utopii Rorty’ego a religią, szczególnie chrześcijańską. Argumentuję, że liberalna utopia Rorty’ego jest (...) czymś w rodzaju religii obywatelskiej. Dlatego nieprzypadkowe wydaje się to, że w ostatnim okresie twórczości amerykańskiego neopragmatysty problematyka nadziei społecznej urasta do rangi jednego z głównych tematów./ Richard Rorty was a staunchly secular intellectual, an atheist who also embraced anticlericalism. Nevertheless, it is my contention that in his vision of liberal utopia some affinities with religion can be detected. In the present article I start by reconstructing the reasons behind Rorty’s critical evaluation of religion’s role in liberal democracy. I stress that those reasons are rooted in the American philosopher’s specific understanding of antiauthoritarianism. Then I move on to the connections between the project of liberal utopia developed by Rorty and religion, especially with Christian religious tradition. I argue that his liberal utopia is something akin to civil religion. Hence, it does not seem like a mere accident that hope emerges as one of the main themes in the last period of American neopragmatists’ creative output. (shrink)

The phenomenal body is an intriguing concept, and Merleau-Ponty’s notion of habit, coupled with motor intentionality, provides a novel perspective on its inner workings. I contend that his portrayal of habit tacitly bears two faces – motoric habit and instrumental habit respectively. The former is an attunement to some bodily possibilities that are already at our disposal while the latter is an explicit relation to external objects and a process of incorporating those objects into our own bodies. These two notions (...) play into each other, creating a mechanism that offers an intuitive illustration and simple productive definition for a dynamic picture of bodyhood. Furthermore, it carries an internal delimitation that marks the boundaries of its application. The result is a view that provides something new to current interpretations of Merleau-Ponty, as well as potential applications in areas that derived from his appeals to motor intentionality. (shrink)

Amerykański filozof Richard Rorty wytrwale pracował na etykietkę intelektualnego enfant terrible. Jednym z przejawów jego oryginalności w akademickim milieu była zdecydowana obrona amerykańskiego patriotyzmu przedstawiona w Spełnianiu obietnicy naszego kraju i innych pismach. W niniejszym artykule staram się uwypuklić pewne cechy Rortiańskiego patriotyzmu oraz powiązać je z jego krytyką lewicy kulturowej. Jego zdaniem utraciła ona polityczne wpływy i uczyniła swoim fetyszem radykalne teoretyzowanie właśnie na skutek swojego antyamerykanizmu. Na koniec stawiam pytanie o to, czy wzrost znaczenia lewicy kulturowej w USA (...) w ostatnich latach nie poddaje w wątpliwość diagnozy Rorty’ego./American philosopher Richard Rorty worked tirelessly for the label of an intellectual enfant terrible. One of the manifestations of his originality within the academic milieu was a staunch defence of American patriotism as exhibited in Achieving Our Country and some of his other works. In the article I strive to highlight some of the features of Rortian patriotism and to show how they link with his criticism of the cultural Left. In his opinion, the latter lost political influence and fetishized radical theorizing precisely due to its anti-Americanism. In the final section of the article I raise the question whether the growth of influence of the cultural Left in USA in recent years does not throw doubt on Rorty’s diagnosis. (shrink)

This article attempts to reconstruct and analyze some selected philosophical views of the Polish physicist Małgorzata Głódź, especially within the context of her links with the interdisciplinary milieu in Kraków (known as the “Kraków School of Philosophy in Science”). It emphasizes the significant role that Głódź played in the historical development of this intellectual tradition. The main portion of this article highlights the connections between Głódź’s philosophy and the philosophical ideas propagated by Michał Heller, the School’s main founder, and his (...) students and other collaborators. The article also indicates elements of her philosophical achievements that deserve attention from the perspective of today’s philosophical challenges. (shrink)