Todorokite
A valid IMA mineral species - grandfathered
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About Todorokite
Formula:
(Na,Ca,K,Ba,Sr)1-x(Mn,Mg,Al)6O12 · 3-4H2O
Also given as (Ca,K,Na,Mg,Ba,Mn)(Mn,Mg,Al)6O12.3H2O.
Colour:
Purplish gray, brown to black; brown in transmitted light
Lustre:
Sub-Vitreous, Resinous, Greasy, Sub-Metallic
Hardness:
1½
Specific Gravity:
3.67
Crystal System:
Monoclinic
Name:
Named in 1934 by Toyofumi Yoshimura after its discovery locality, the Todoroki Mine, Hokkaido, Japan.
A relatively common Mn oxide that occurs in a variety of aggregate forms. Usually fibrous, either compact or isolated. Micaceous aggregates may be confused with ranciéite, fibrous forms with pyrolusite. Compare woodruffite.
As with birnessite, it may be a product of mineralization of fungal (e.g., Penicillium spp., Mucor spp., Rhizopus spp.) hyphae; as such is found in cave deposits and waters (vide Burford et al., 2003).
As with birnessite, it may be a product of mineralization of fungal (e.g., Penicillium spp., Mucor spp., Rhizopus spp.) hyphae; as such is found in cave deposits and waters (vide Burford et al., 2003).
Unique Identifiers
Mindat ID:
3988
Long-form identifier:
mindat:1:1:3988:4
IMA Classification of Todorokite
Approved, 'Grandfathered' (first described prior to 1959)
IMA Formula:
(Na,Ca,K,Ba,Sr)1-x(Mn,Mg,Al)6O12 · 3-4H2O
First published:
1934
Classification of Todorokite
4.DK.10
4 : OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites, iodates)
D : Metal: Oxygen = 1:2 and similar
K : With large (+- medium-sized) cations; tunnel structures
4 : OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites, iodates)
D : Metal: Oxygen = 1:2 and similar
K : With large (+- medium-sized) cations; tunnel structures
7.8.1.1
7 : MULTIPLE OXIDES
8 : AB3X7
7 : MULTIPLE OXIDES
8 : AB3X7
7.4.19
7 : Oxides and Hydroxides
4 : Oxides of Be, Mg and the alkaline earths
7 : Oxides and Hydroxides
4 : Oxides of Be, Mg and the alkaline earths
Mineral Symbols
As of 2021 there are now IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols (abbreviations) for each mineral species, useful for tables and diagrams.
Please only use the official IMA–CNMNC symbol. Older variants are listed for historical use only.
Please only use the official IMA–CNMNC symbol. Older variants are listed for historical use only.
| Symbol | Source | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Tdr | IMA–CNMNC | Warr, L.N. (2021). IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols. Mineralogical Magazine, 85(3), 291-320. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43 |
| Tdr | Warr (2020) | Warr, L.N. (2020) Recommended abbreviations for the names of clay minerals and associated phases. Clay Minerals, 55, 261–264 doi:10.1180/clm.2020.30 |
Physical Properties of Todorokite
Sub-Vitreous, Resinous, Greasy, Sub-Metallic
Transparency:
Opaque
Colour:
Purplish gray, brown to black; brown in transmitted light
Streak:
Brown, black, lead-gray
Hardness:
1½ on Mohs scale
Tenacity:
Brittle
Cleavage:
Perfect
{100} and {010} perfect.
{100} and {010} perfect.
Fracture:
Splintery
Density:
3.67 g/cm3 (Measured) 3.65 g/cm3 (Calculated)
Optical Data of Todorokite
Type:
Biaxial (-)
RI values:
nα = 2.31 nβ = 2.35
Max. Birefringence:
δ = 0.000
Based on recorded range of RI values above.
Based on recorded range of RI values above.
Interference Colours:
The colours simulate birefringence patterns seen in thin section under crossed polars. They do not take into account mineral colouration or opacity.
Michel-Levy Bar The default colours simulate the birefringence range for a 30 µm thin-section thickness. Adjust the slider to simulate a different thickness.
Grain Simulation You can rotate the grain simulation to show how this range might look as you rotated a sample under crossed polars.
The colours simulate birefringence patterns seen in thin section under crossed polars. They do not take into account mineral colouration or opacity.
Michel-Levy Bar The default colours simulate the birefringence range for a 30 µm thin-section thickness. Adjust the slider to simulate a different thickness.
Grain Simulation You can rotate the grain simulation to show how this range might look as you rotated a sample under crossed polars.
Surface Relief:
Moderate
Optical Extinction:
Y=b, Z>X
Pleochroism:
Visible
Comments:
Pleochroic in brown.
Chemistry of Todorokite
Mindat Formula:
(Na,Ca,K,Ba,Sr)1-x(Mn,Mg,Al)6O12 · 3-4H2O
Also given as (Ca,K,Na,Mg,Ba,Mn)(Mn,Mg,Al)6O12.3H2O.
Also given as (Ca,K,Na,Mg,Ba,Mn)(Mn,Mg,Al)6O12.3H2O.
Common Impurities:
Ba,K,Na
Crystallography of Todorokite
Crystal System:
Monoclinic
Class (H-M):
2/m - Prismatic
Space Group:
P2/m
Cell Parameters:
a = 9.75 Å, b = 2.84 Å, c = 9.59 Å
β = 90°
β = 90°
Ratio:
a:b:c = 3.433 : 1 : 3.377
Unit Cell V:
265.55 ų (Calculated from Unit Cell)
Z:
1
Morphology:
Spongy banded and/or reniform aggregates composed of minute lathlike to fibrous crystals. Crystals flattened {010} and elongated [001] with terminal edges inclined about 60° and 70° to [001].
Twinning:
Contact twins with c ^ ć about 60°.
Comment:
β may be variable; formerly given as orthorhombic or tetragonal
Crystal Structure
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Data courtesy of the American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database. Click on an AMCSD ID to view structure
| ID | Species | Reference | Link | Year | Locality | Pressure (GPa) | Temp (K) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0001188 | Todorokite | Post J E, Bish D L (1988) Rietveld refinement of the todorokite structure American Mineralogist 73 861-869 |  | 1988 | 0 | 293 | |
| 0001189 | Todorokite | Post J E, Bish D L (1988) Rietveld refinement of the todorokite structure American Mineralogist 73 861-869 | | 1988 | 0 | 293 | |
| 0001190 | Todorokite | Post J E, Bish D L (1988) Rietveld refinement of the todorokite structure American Mineralogist 73 861-869 | | 1988 | 0 | 293 | |
| 0002955 | Todorokite | Post J E, Heaney P J, Hanson J C (2003) Synchrotron X-ray diffraction study of the structure and dehydration behavior of todorokite American Mineralogist 88 142-150 | | 2003 | 0 | 293 |
CIF Raw Data - click here to close
X-Ray Powder Diffraction
Powder Diffraction Data:
| d-spacing | Intensity |
|---|---|
| 9.65 Å | (100) |
| 7.02 Å | (40) |
| 4.82 Å | (70) |
| 4.48 Å | (70) |
| 3.20 Å | (10) |
| 3.07 Å | (40) |
| 2.75 Å | (10) |
| 2.46 Å | (40) |
| 2.42 Å | (10) |
| 2.35 Å | (40) |
| 2.28 Å | (10) |
| 2.20 Å | (5) |
| 2.13 Å | (10) |
| 1.98 Å | (10) |
| 1.91 Å | (5) |
| 1.77 Å | (10) |
| 1.67 Å | (10) |
| 1.64 Å | (10) |
| 1.54 Å | (10) |
| 1.42 Å | (5) |
| 1.406 Å | (5) |
Comments:
JCPDS 18-1411 (Charco Redondo, Cuba). See also ICDD 19-83 and ICDD 21-553.
Geological Environment
Paragenetic Mode(s):
| Paragenetic Mode | Earliest Age (Ga) |
|---|---|
| Stage 5: Initiation of plate tectonics | <3.5-2.5 |
| 42 : Sea-floor Mn nodules | |
| Stage 7: Great Oxidation Event | <2.4 |
| 47a : [Near-surface hydration of prior minerals] | |
| 47e : [Vanadates, chromates, manganates] | |
| 47h : [Near-surface oxidized, dehydrated minerals] | |
| Stage 10a: Neoproterozoic oxygenation/terrestrial biosphere | <0.6 |
| 49 : Oxic cellular biomineralization (see also #44) | <0.54 |
Geological Setting:
Common in ocean floor manganese nodules; found in manganese oxide deposits; late stage coating in granite pegmatite
Type Occurrence of Todorokite
General Appearance of Type Material:
Very fine fibrous flakes, < 0.05 mm in length. The flakes are arranged in lamellar layers, in which the lamellae are vertical to the surface of the layer.
Synonyms of Todorokite
Other Language Names for Todorokite
Common Associates
Associated Minerals Based on Photo Data:
| 57 photos of Todorokite associated with Birnessite | (Na,Ca)0.5(Mn4+,Mn3+)2O4 · 1.5H2O |
| 53 photos of Todorokite associated with Romanèchite | (Ba,H2O)2(Mn4+,Mn3+)5O10 |
| 50 photos of Todorokite associated with Calcite | CaCO3 |
| 26 photos of Todorokite associated with Quartz | SiO2 |
| 21 photos of Todorokite associated with Colemanite | Ca[B3O4(OH)3] · H2O |
| 16 photos of Todorokite associated with Fluorapatite | Ca5(PO4)3F |
| 15 photos of Todorokite associated with Opal | SiO2 · nH2O |
| 13 photos of Todorokite associated with Aragonite | CaCO3 |
| 12 photos of Todorokite associated with Siderite | FeCO3 |
| 9 photos of Todorokite associated with Baryte | BaSO4 |
Related Minerals - Strunz-mindat Grouping
| 4.DK.K | Thalliomelane | Tl(Mn4+7.5Cu2+0.5)O16 |
| 4.DK. | Ferrihollandite | Ba(Mn4+6Fe3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.4.DK. | Ferricoronadite | Pb(Mn4+6Fe3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.05a | Manjiroite | Na(Mn4+7Mn3+)O16 |
| 4.DK.05b | Mannardite | Ba(Ti4+6V3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.05b | Redledgeite | Ba(Ti4+6Cr3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.05 | Akaganeite | (Fe3+,Ni2+)8(OH,O)16Cl1.25 · nH2O |
| 4.DK.05a | Coronadite | Pb(Mn4+6Mn3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.05a | Hollandite | Ba(Mn4+6Mn3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.05a | Cryptomelane | K(Mn4+7Mn3+)O16 |
| 4.DK.05a | Strontiomelane | Sr(Mn4+6Mn3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.05b | Henrymeyerite | Ba(Ti4+7Fe2+)O16 |
| 4.DK.05b | Priderite | K(Ti4+7Fe3+)O16 |
| 4.DK.10 | Romanèchite | (Ba,H2O)2(Mn4+,Mn3+)5O10 |
Fluorescence of Todorokite
Not fluorescent in ultraviolet
Other Information
Health Risks:
No information on health risks for this material has been entered into the database. You should always treat mineral specimens with care.
Internet Links for Todorokite
mindat.org URL:
https://www.mindat.org/min-3988.html
Please feel free to link to this page.
Please feel free to link to this page.
Search Engines:
External Links:
References for Todorokite
Reference List:
Frondel, C., Marvin, U. B., Ito, J. (1960) New occurrences of todorokite. American Mineralogist, 45 (11-12) 1167-1173
Radtke, Arthur S., Taylor, Charles M., Hewett, D. F. (1967) Aurorite, argentian todorokite, and hydrous silver-bearing lead manganese oxide. Economic Geology, 62 (2) 186-206 doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.62.2.186
Fleischer, Michael, Burns, Roger G., Cabri, Louis J., Chao, George Y., Hogarth, D. D., Pabst, Adolf (1979) New Mineral Names. American Mineralogist, 64 (11-12) 1329-1334
Burns, Roger G., Burns, Virginia Mee, Stockman, Harlan W. (1983) A review of the todorokite-buserite problem: implications to the mineralogy of marine manganese nodules. American Mineralogist, 68 (9-10) 972-980
Golden, D. C. (1987) Transformation of Birnessite to Buserite, Todorokite, and Manganite under Mild Hydrothermal Treatment. Clays and Clay Minerals, 35 (4) 271-280 doi:10.1346/ccmn.1987.0350404
Post, Jeffrey E., Bish, David L. (1988) Rietveld refinement of the todorokite structure. American Mineralogist, 73 (7-8) 861-869
Post, Jeffrey E., Heaney, Peter J., Hanson, Jonathan (2003) Synchrotron X-ray diffraction study of the structure and dehydration behavior of todorokite. American Mineralogist, 88 (1) 142-150 doi:10.2138/am-2003-0117
BURFORD, EUAN P., KIERANS, MARTIN, GADD, GEOFFREY M. (2003) Geomycology: fungi in mineral substrata. Mycologist, 17 (3). 98-107 doi:10.1017/s0269915x03003112
Vafeas, Nicholas Andrew, Viljoen, K.S., Blignaut, Lauren Cher (2018) Characterization of Fibrous Cryptomelane From the Todorokite-Cryptomelane Mineral Assemblage At the Sebilo Mine, Northern Cape Province, South Africa. The Canadian Mineralogist, 56 (1) 65-76 doi:10.3749/canmin.1700043
Localities for Todorokite
symbol to view information about a locality.
The Locality List
- This locality has map coordinates listed.
- This locality has estimated coordinates.
ⓘ - Click for references and further information on this occurrence.
? - Indicates mineral may be doubtful at this locality.
- Good crystals or important locality for species.
- World class for species or very significant.
(TL) - Type Locality for a valid mineral species.
(FRL) - First Recorded Locality for everything else (eg varieties).
All localities listed without proper references should be considered as questionable.
Argentina | |
| Colombo et al. (2011) |
| Helvaci et al. (2000) +1 other reference |
| ... |
| Trueman et al. (2020) |
Atlantic Ocean | |
| Kim (1982) +1 other reference | |
| Melekestseva et al. (2022) |
| Sergienko et al. (2024) | |
| Milinovic +6 other references | |
Australia | |
| McQueen +2 other references |
| Munro-Smith (2006) |
| Crocoite.com |
| England (2002) |
| England et al. (1988) |
| England (1996) | |
| Keith F Compton collection |
| Gilligan et al. (1995) |
| Gilligan et al. (1992) |
| Ostwald (1981) +1 other reference |
| Con Constantinides collection |
| Noble et al. (1983) |
| |
| Daniel Hummer Collection | |
| Jones et al. (2013) |
| www.tngltd.com.au (n.d.) |
| Bridge et al. (1978) |
| Le Gleuher M. (2008) |
Austria | |
| U. Kolitsch et al. (2009) +1 other reference |
| Götzinger et al. (2009) |
| G. Niedermayr: Carinthia II 187./107.:175 (1997) +1 other reference |
| European Journal of Mineralogy 17 (1) |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| NHM Vienna collection | |
| G. Blass (2001) |
| Martin Rich collection |
| Pichler (2009) |
| |
| Taucher (1995) |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| matrixx 4 | |
| Kolitsch et al. (2012) |
| Exel (1993) |
| Goldmann et al. (2008) |
| Goldmann et al. (2008) | |
| Uwe Kolitsch (PXRD-analysis of small black-brown globular aggregates with a radiating internal structure) +1 other reference | |
| Löffler et al. (2019) |
| Löffler et al. (2011) |
| Erwin Löffler collection (PXRD-analysed by Uwe Kolitsch) | |
| Löffler et al. (2011) | |
| Niedermayr et al. (1992) |
| Ertl (2002) |
| Kolitsch et al. (2017) |
| Kolitsch et al. (2009) |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Exel (1993) |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Strasser (1989) | |
| Neschen (n.d.) |
| Walter (2009) | |
| Strasser (1989) | |
| Strasser (1989) | |
| Kolitsch et al. (2012) |
| Bojar (2006) |
| Tomazic et al. (2012) |
| G.Gesselbauer (2011) |
| Postl (1992) |
| Auer (2023) |
| Taucher et al. (1992) |
| C.Auer (2021) |
| Taucher (1993) |
| Taucher (1994) |
| Weninger (1976) +2 other references |
| Postl et al. (1996) |
| Postl et al. (1996) |
| Moser et al. (1986) +1 other reference |
| Taucher (1996) +1 other reference |
| BRANDSTÄTTER et al. (2015) |
| Kolitsch et al. (2017) |
| Kolitsch (2021) |
| Kolitsch et al. (2010) |
| 54 (in German) +1 other reference |
| WALLENTA (1985) |
Belgium | |
| Hatert et al. (2014) |
| Jockin (en collaboration avec l'université de Liège) |
| Hatert et al. (2002) |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | |
| Bevandić et al. (2018) |
| Tankosić et al. (2018) |
Brazil | |
| Santos et al. (2021) +1 other reference |
| acd.ufrj.br (2002) |
| Rezende et al. (2021) |
| Menezes (n.d.) |
| Uchôa Filho et al. (2025) |
Bulgaria | |
| Chavdarova et al. (2022) |
| Vassileva et al. (2007) |
Burkina Faso | |
| Sattran et al. (2002) |
Canada | |
| Horvath et al. unpublished |
| Horváth et al. (1998) |
| Horváth et al. (1998) | |
Chile | |
| biblioserver.sernageomin.cl (n.d.) |
| XRD by Gerhard Möhn |
| samples analysed by Anthony Kampf +1 other reference |
China | |
| Bin Yu (2005) |
| Fengjun Ma (1986) |
| Guicheng Huang et al. (2001) +1 other reference |
| Dairong Yan et al. (2006) |
| Yinsheng Lang et al. (2007) |
| Su Haifeng et al. (2008) |
| Yinsheng Lang et al. (2007) |
| Yinsheng Lang et al. (2007) | |
| Guilin Institute of Metallurgical Geology et al. (1976) | |
| Yinsheng Lang et al. (2007) | |
| Yinsheng Lang et al. (2007) | |
| Jingqu Yao (1992) |
| Jingqu Yao (1992) | |
| Jingqu Yao (1992) |
| Wang Chen et al. (2006) |
| Zhongtang Yang et al. (2009) |
| Yeh et al. (1999) |
| Shaozhi Zhou (1999) |
| Qingrong Zheng et al. (2012) | |
| Li et al. (2022) |
| Zhao et al. (2025) |
| Zhaoxin Han et al. (2004) +1 other reference |
| Yuchun Yang (1990) |
| Hanzhu Wang and Zengfu Xiao (1988) |
| Du +6 other references |
Costa Rica | |
| Micro Probe Volume VII Number 7 Spring ... +1 other reference |
Croatia | |
| Dolenec (2003) | |
| Lugović et al. (2008) |
Cuba | |
| Shen et al. (1992) |
| Acta Geológica Hispánica et al. (1-4) |
| www.minsocam.org 45:1174-1184 +1 other reference |
| Acta Geológica Hispánica et al. (1-4) | |
| Levinson (1960) | |
Cyprus | |
| Prüfer (2010) |
Czech Republic | |
| Matýsek D. (Outer Western Carpathians) |
| Matýsek D (2021) |
| Matýsek et al. (2021) | |
| Sejkora et al. (2007) |
| Pauliš P. Nejzajímavější ... |
| Jirásek J. et al. (2018) |
| Jirásek J. et al. (2018) |
Egypt | |
| Salama et al. (2012) |
| Afify et al. (2022) |
France | |
| Blondieau et al. (2025) |
| Wittern et al. (1997) |
| Perseil (1975) | |
| Perseil (1975) | |
| Coureau et al. (2024) |
| Kolitsch (1997) |
| Wittern et al. (1997) |
| Berger et al. (2011) +1 other reference |
| Bull. Soc. Franç. Minéralo. ... |
| Bull. Soc. Franç. Minéralo. ... |
| Inventaire minéralogique de la France ... |
| De Ascenção Guedes et al. (2002) |
| De Ascenção Guedes et al. (2002) |
| Berbain et al. (2005) |
| Kampf et al. 2011 +1 other reference |
| "Les minéralisations associées au volcanisme andésitique de Biot-Villeneuve Loubet (Alpes Maritimes) |
Germany | |
| |
| Walenta (1992) |
| 70. +1 other reference |
| Walenta (1992) |
| Walenta (1992) |
| Walenta (1992) |
| Hanneberg et al. (2009) +1 other reference |
| Weiß (1990) |
| Lorenz (1998) +1 other reference |
| Aufschluss 50 (1999) |
| Lorenz (1991) +1 other reference |
| Hanneberg et al. (2009) +1 other reference |
| Weiß (1990) |
| Schmeltzer (1977) | |
| Nickel et al. (1985) |
| Petitjean et al. (2007) |
| |
| Legner et al. (2022) |
| Blaß et al. (2010) | |
| Weiß (1990) |
| Schnorrer-Köhler (1988) | |
| Schnorrer-Köhler (1991) |
| Wittern et al. (1986) |
| |
| Schnorrer et al. (2002) +1 other reference |
| Schnorrer (1995) +1 other reference |
| Neutkens et al. (2008) |
| Wittern (2001) |
| Henrich et al. (2019) |
| Der Aufschluss 2000 (2) |
| Wittern (2001) |
| Heinrich et al. (2011) |
| Kleser (2006) |
| O Dziallas collection |
| Luetcke (n.d.) |
| Gröbner et al. (2011) |
| SEM-EDS and XRD by Joy Desor and ... |
| Witzke et al. (2006) +1 other reference |
| Paul (1995) |
| WITZKE (2018) | |
| Wittern (2001) |
| collection H.J. Haas |
| Marcus Voigt Collection |
Ghana | |
| Mücke et al. (1999) |
Greece | |
| Kolitsch et al. (2014) |
| Vourlakos (1992) | |
| Schusser et al. (2022) |
| Möckel (2000) |
| Stouraiti et al. (2022) +1 other reference |
| Miltiadis Nimfopoulos (1988) +1 other reference |
| Soulamidis et al. (2024) | |
| Fornadel et al. (2011) |
| Φωτιάδης (2010) |
| Φωτιάδης (2010) |
| Reinecke (1982) |
| Kilias +7 other references |
| Altherr et al. (2013) |
Greenland | |
| McDonald et al. (2001) +1 other reference |
| Sørensen (2001) +1 other reference | |
Hungary | |
| Sándor et al. (2005) |
| Sándor Szakáll +1 other reference |
| Zajzon N et al. (20014) |
| Sándor et al. (2005) |
| Szakáll & Jánosi (1996) |
| Koch (1985) |
| Sándor et al. (2005) | |
India | |
| Analysis by Dr. George Rossman of the ... |
| Rao +1 other reference |
Indian Ocean | |
| Nayak et al. (2011) | |
| Herzig et al. (1988) | |
Indonesia | |
| Econ Geol (1990) |
| Milési et al. (1999) |
Iran | |
| Shahin et al. (2023) |
| Marouti et al. (2021) +1 other reference |
| Lotfi et al. (2017) |
Italy | |
| Bernardini et al. (2021) |
| Barresi et al. (2005) |
| Piccoli et al. (2007) |
| Sinisi et al. (2018) |
| doi.org (n.d.) +2 other references |
| Bartoli et al. (2008) |
| Bartoli et al. (2008) | |
| Adorni (1993) |
| Orlandi et al. (1988) +1 other reference | |
| Adorni et al. (2010) |
| Adorni et al. (2010) |
| Adorni et al. (2010) |
| Adorni F. et al. (2005) |
| I minerali di varie ofioliti attorno a Villa Minozzo (RE) |
| Antofilli et al. (1983) |
| Joan Rosell. RosellMinerals |
| Pipino (1984) |
| Bracco et al. (2003) |
| Pezzotta et al. (1999) |
| Guastoni et al. (2004) |
| P. Mattias- M. Guerra (2008) |
| Boni et al. (1977) |
| Boni et al. (1977) |
| Boni et al. (1977) |
| Boni et al. (1977) |
| Boni et al. (1976) +1 other reference |
| Armellino et al. (2019) |
| Simone Ferrero collection. +2 other references |
| Piccoli et al. (2007) |
| Ferraris (1971) +2 other references |
| Barresi et al. (2) |
| Giovanni Scapin Collection |
| Ambrino et al. (2010) |
| Brizio et al. (2010) |
| Ambrino (Piero) |
| Piccoli et al. (2007) |
| Deidda et al. (2012) |
| Grill (1935) |
| Orlandi et al. (1988) | |
| Orlandi et al. (1988) +1 other reference |
| Ara D. et al. (2013) |
| Baldoni et al. (2013) +1 other reference |
| Guerin H. (1982) |
| Samples collected by Luigi Chiappino ... +1 other reference |
| Bortolozzi et al. (2013) |
| Bardi et al. (2017) |
| Orlandi et al. (1988) |
| Orlandi et al. (1988) | |
| Ciampalini et al. (2010) +1 other reference |
| P. Roegner - (raggi X, EDS) |
| Luigi Matei photo |
| Biagioni C. (Alpi Apuane, Lucca) | |
| Biagioni C. (Alpi Apuane, Lucca) | |
| Orlandi et al. (1988) +1 other reference |
| Orlandi et al. (1988) |
| Orlandi et al. (2009) |
| Orlandi et al. (2009) | |
| Orlandi et al. (2000) +1 other reference |
| Orlandi et al. (2009) | |
| Orlandi et al. (2000) +1 other reference |
| Pedroni (1995) +1 other reference |
| Libvrna N°6 - october 2022 |
| Eckhardt et al. (1997) |
| Rossi et al. (1980) | |
| Eckhardt et al. (1997) | |
| Boscardin (2014) |
| Pegoraro S. (2014) |
Japan | |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) |
| Nakagawa et al. (2009) |
| Yamada (2005) |
| Azami et al. (2025) |
| - (n.d.) |
| Introduction to Japanese Minerals (Geological Survey of Japan, 1970) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) |
| H. Momoi (1964) |
| - (n.d.) |
| Petrov (n.d.) |
| - (unpublished species lists maintained by local collectors) +1 other reference |
| Akira Kato (undated manuscript) |
| Y. Okayama: Hydrothermal manganese oxides from southwest region of Aogashima island. Mining Geology (3) |
Jordan | |
| Qatar Univ. Sci. J. 21:101-117. |
Kazakhstan | |
| Evseev (1995) |
| Frank Dzubeck |
Luxembourg | |
| Philippo et al. (2007) |
Malaysia | |
| Adnan et al. (2024) |
Mexico | |
| Canet et al. (2005) +1 other reference |
| Del Rio Salas (2011) |
| Conly et al. (2011) |
| Cross (2006) |
| Megaw (1990) |
| Querol +1 other reference |
| Madondo et al. (2025) |
| Ref.: Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas et al. (2000) |
| Daniel Hummer Collection | |
| J. Arturo Gomez-Caballero et al. (2010) |
Mongolia | |
| Kuleshov (2003) |
Morocco | |
| FAVREAU G. & DIETRICH J.E. (2006) |
Namibia | |
| E. Schnaitmann et al. (2008) |
| Uwe Kolitsch (single-crystal X-ray diffraction) +2 other references |
| Niedermayr (2001) |
Nazca Plate | |
| Zawadzki et al. (2022) | |
New Zealand | |
| Thornton (Ed.) |
| Read et al. (1971) |
| Ko Jansen |
North Macedonia | |
| Djordjevic et al. (2021) |
Norway | |
| Morad (1985) +1 other reference |
| Onac et al. (1995) | |
| Larsen et al. (2010) |
| Larsen et al. (1992) +2 other references | |
Pacific Ocean | |
| Uspenskaya et al. (1987) | |
| Mee Burns et al. (1978) |
| Skowronek et al. (2021) +1 other reference | |
| Fan et al. (2024) | |
| Deng et al. (2024) | |
| Xu et al. (2024) | |
| Peretyazhko et al. (2025) | |
| Deng et al. (2024) | |
| Peretyazhko et al. (2025) | |
| Park et al. (2024) | |
| Deng et al. (2022) | |
| Fengyou Chu et al. (2006) |
| Volokhina et al. (2020) +2 other references |
| Azami et al. (2024) | |
| Glasby et al. (2006) |
| Hein et al. (2010) |
| Hein et al. (2010) | |
| Hein et al. (2010) | |
| Hein et al. (2010) | |
| Hein et al. (2010) | |
| Hein et al. (2010) | |
Papua New Guinea | |
| Zhigang Zeng et al. (12) |
Poland | |
| DOI: 10.1515/mipo-2016-0002 +2 other references |
| Jach et al. (2005) |
| Pieczka et al. (2001) |
Portugal | |
| Alves (n.d.) |
Red Sea | |
| Sediment-Hosted Mineral Deposits: ... | |
Romania | |
| Onac et al. (1997) |
| Tudor Tamas et al. (2017) |
| Szakáll |
| Szakáll et al. (2010) | |
| minerals-of-the-carpathians.eu (2008) |
| Onac et al. (2002) |
Russia | |
| webmineral.ru (2020) +1 other reference |
| Anthony et al. (1997) |
| Palchik et al. (2014) |
| Chukhrov et al. (1978) |
| Silyanov et al. (2021) |
| Filimonova et al. (2006) +1 other reference |
| ... |
| ... | |
| Semenov E.I. (1972) |
| Semenov E.I. (1972) | |
| Sharkov (2009) |
| Talovina et al. (2003) |
| Glasby et al. (2006) |
| Glasby et al. (2006) | |
| Kasatkin et al. (2021) |
Slovakia | |
| Haber M. et al. (Terézia Vein, Banskà Stiavnica deposit, Slovak Republic) |
| Jeleň et al. (2006) | |
| Martin Števku-unpublished |
| Šoltés S. et al. (Malé Karpáty Mts.) |
| Šoltés S. et al. (Malé Karpáty Mts.) |
| Šoltés S. et al. (Malé Karpáty Mts.) |
| Šoltés S. et al. (Malé Karpáty Mts.) | |
| Rojkovič (2001) |
| Radvanec M. and Gonda S. (2020) +1 other reference |
| Majzlan et al. (2025) |
| Majzlan et al. (2025) | |
| Majzlan et al. (2025) | |
| Rojkovič I. et al. (2003) |
| Rojkovič et al. (2003) |
| Rojkovič et al. (2003) |
| Rojkovič et al. (2003) |
| Rojkovič et al. (2003) |
| Rojkovič et al. (2003) | |
| Rojkovič et al. (2003) |
South Africa | |
| NSUTITE (BATTERY GRADE MANGANESE DIOXIDE) +1 other reference |
| Martini (1997) |
| upetd.up.ac.za (2006) |
| Martini et al. (1978) |
| Pohl et al. (1991) +1 other reference |
| Pohl et al. (1991) +2 other references | |
| Pohl et al. (1991) +1 other reference |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) +2 other references | |
| Pohl et al. (1991) +1 other reference | |
| |
| Pohl et al. (1991) +1 other reference | |
| Vafeas et al. (2018) | |
| Pohl et al. (1991) +1 other reference | |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) |
South China Sea | |
| Zhou et al. (2022) |
South Korea | |
| Choi et al. (2005) |
Spain | |
| Calvo (2009) |
| Jorge (2000) +1 other reference |
| Colectivo Arrayanes et al. (2008) |
| Mata-Perelló (1979) |
| Calvo (2008) |
| Calvo (2008) |
| Onac et al. (2014) +1 other reference |
| Marino et al. (2019) |
| Strasser et al. (2006) |
| Lapis 2001 et al. (reference via Ferdinando Giovine) +2 other references |
| Van Opstal (2021) | |
| Marino et al. (2019) | |
| Abad +3 other references |
| A. Crespo & R. Lunar (1997) |
| Calvo (2009) |
| Mineralogistes de Catalunya |
| Joan Rosell - rosellminerals.com |
| gr-mulhacen.foroactivo.com (2020) |
| mti-minas-valencia.blogspot.com (2012) |
| Mata Perelló |
Sweden | |
| Swedish Nat.Musuem |
| Strand et al. (2015) |
| Strand et al. (2015) | |
| Strand et al. (2015) | |
| |
| Nysten (2004) |
Switzerland | |
| Stalder et al. (1998) |
| Perseil E.A. Untersuchungen über die Anwesenheit von Strontium in den Manganvererzungen von Falotta und Parsettens (GR) | |
| Stalder et al. (1998) |
| Stalder et al. (1998) |
| Le Cristallier Suisse (7) | |
| Vanini F. et al. (1998) | |
| Cuchet et al. (2019) |
| Ansermet (2012) |
| Ansermet (2012) |
| Stalder et al. (1998) |
Tonga | |
| Stackelberg et al. (1990) |
Turkey | |
| TEKER et al. (2006) |
| USGS Prof Paper 550C ppC158-C161 |
| USGS Prof Paper 550C ppC158-C161 | |
UK | |
| Wolfe et al. (2008) |
| Calvert et al. (1970) |
Ukraine | |
| Geologiya SSSR (The geology of USSR) +1 other reference |
| Alexander I. Tischenko (1996) |
USA | |
| - (2008) |
| - (2008) |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Anthony et al. (1995) | |
| Merritt Stephen Enders (2000) |
| Wilson (1984) +1 other reference |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Anthony et al. (1995) | |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Bob Massey micromount collection |
| Bob Massey micromount collection | |
| |
| Erd et al. (1961) +2 other references | |
| Morgan et al. (1969) +1 other reference |
| Potter et al. (1979) |
| Mitchell et al. (1973) +2 other references |
| Milton et al. (1971) +2 other references |
| Petrov (n.d.) |
| Dunning et al. (2005) |
| Foord (1977) +1 other reference |
| minerals.gps.caltech.edu (1997) |
| Foord et al. (1989) |
| Rob Lavinsky (ex. Chuck Houser specimen) | |
| Steve Pullman |
| Huebner +3 other references |
| DeVito (1991) |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| Eckel et al. (1997) | |
| Eckel et al. (1997) | |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| Schooner (circa 1980s) |
| Mielke (n.d.) | |
| King et al. (1994) |
| King et al. (1994) +1 other reference |
| Gene Bearss |
| Gene Foord +1 other reference |
| King (n.d.) |
| Maine Pegmatite Workshop 2004 |
| Kink | |
| Mineral News (1994) +1 other reference |
| King et al. (1994) |
| King et al. (1994) +1 other reference |
| King et al. (1994) +1 other reference | |
| King et al. (1994) | |
| Found and id'ed during ongoing study of ... +1 other reference |
| Dionne et al. (2014) |
| King (n.d.) |
| King (n.d.) | |
| King et al. (1994) |
| www.irocks.com (2020) |
| Mr. Fred Parker |
| Travis Olds collection |
| - (2005) |
| Gobla (2012) |
| Prinz (1967) +1 other reference |
| AmMin 47:59 +1 other reference | |
| H.A. Barrett and M.P.S. Krekeler (2011) | |
| Gobla (2012) | |
| American Mineralogist 47:59-66 |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Whitman (2023) |
| Kleinhampl et al. (1984) |
| CONF-910435-37 +3 other references | |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Castor et al. (2004) | |
| Castor et al. (2004) | |
| Segeler et al. (1981) |
| Maertens (2007) |
| Dunn (1995) |
| Baum (2) |
| Frondel et al. (1960) +2 other references | |
| NMGS 37th Field Conference |
| Northrop et al. (1996) +1 other reference |
| Northrop et al. (1996) |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| NMBMMR Memoir 15 Geology and Technology ... |
| Maxwell et al. (1986) |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| King (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| Michael W. Kieron collection |
| Campbell et al. (1985) |
| Moore et al. (1974) |
| Smith et al. (2000) |
| Seaman (1976) |
| SEM-EDS analyzed by Travis Olds |
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Punta del Aguila, Playa Blanca, Yaiza, Lanzarote, Las Palmas Province, Canary Islands, Spain