Cryptomelane
A valid IMA mineral species - grandfathered
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About Cryptomelane
Formula:
K(Mn4+7Mn3+)O16
Colour:
Brown, grayish-white
Lustre:
Resinous, Dull, Earthy
Hardness:
5 - 6½
Specific Gravity:
4.17 - 4.41
Crystal System:
Monoclinic
Member of:
Name:
Named in 1942 by Wallace E. Richmond and Forrest A. Gonyer From the Greek words meaning κρυπτοζ "hidden" and μέλας "black," since the identity of this common black manganese mineral had been hidden within a group of manganese oxides.
Isostructural with:
Visually indistinguishable from hollandite and several other manganese oxide minerals.
Many manganese oxides are better identified using infra-red spectroscopy than by X-ray diffraction because of issues of crystal size, disorder, etc. (Potter and Rossman, 1979).
Many manganese oxides are better identified using infra-red spectroscopy than by X-ray diffraction because of issues of crystal size, disorder, etc. (Potter and Rossman, 1979).
Unique Identifiers
Mindat ID:
1164
Long-form identifier:
mindat:1:1:1164:4
IMA Classification of Cryptomelane
Approved, 'Grandfathered' (first described prior to 1959)
Approval year:
1982
Classification of Cryptomelane
4.DK.05a
4 : OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites, iodates)
D : Metal: Oxygen = 1:2 and similar
K : With large (+- medium-sized) cations; tunnel structures
4 : OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites, iodates)
D : Metal: Oxygen = 1:2 and similar
K : With large (+- medium-sized) cations; tunnel structures
7.9.1.2
7 : MULTIPLE OXIDES
9 : AB8X16
7 : MULTIPLE OXIDES
9 : AB8X16
7.2.4
7 : Oxides and Hydroxides
2 : Oxides of the alkali metals
7 : Oxides and Hydroxides
2 : Oxides of the alkali metals
Mineral Symbols
As of 2021 there are now IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols (abbreviations) for each mineral species, useful for tables and diagrams.
Please only use the official IMA–CNMNC symbol. Older variants are listed for historical use only.
Please only use the official IMA–CNMNC symbol. Older variants are listed for historical use only.
| Symbol | Source | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Cml | IMA–CNMNC | Warr, L.N. (2021). IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols. Mineralogical Magazine, 85(3), 291-320. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43 |
| Cpt | The Canadian Mineralogist (2019) | The Canadian Mineralogist (2019) The Canadian Mineralogist list of symbols for rock- and ore-forming minerals (December 30, 2019). download |
| Cml | Warr (2020) | Warr, L.N. (2020) Recommended abbreviations for the names of clay minerals and associated phases. Clay Minerals, 55, 261–264 doi:10.1180/clm.2020.30 |
Physical Properties of Cryptomelane
Resinous, Dull, Earthy
Transparency:
Opaque
Colour:
Brown, grayish-white
Streak:
Brownish black
Hardness:
5 - 6½ on Mohs scale
Tenacity:
Brittle
Density:
4.17 - 4.41 g/cm3 (Measured) 4.44 g/cm3 (Calculated)
Chemistry of Cryptomelane
Mindat Formula:
K(Mn4+7Mn3+)O16
Elements listed:
Chemical Analysis
Oxide wt%:
| 1 | |
|---|---|
| Mn2O3 | 81.0 % |
| Fe2O3 | 0.8 % |
| Al2O3 | 0.5 % |
| K2O | 3.3 % |
| Na2O | 0.8 % |
| H2O | 12.2 % |
| Total: | 98.6 % |
Sample references:
| ID | Locality | Reference | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Lierneux, Liège, Wallonia, Belgium | Analysis by Pisani |
Crystallography of Cryptomelane
Crystal System:
Monoclinic
Class (H-M):
2/m - Prismatic
Cell Parameters:
a = 9.956 Å, b = 2.8705 Å, c = 9.706 Å
β = 90.95°
β = 90.95°
Ratio:
a:b:c = 3.468 : 1 : 3.381
Unit Cell V:
277.35 ų (Calculated from Unit Cell)
Z:
1
Comment:
Non-standard I2/m setting; pseudo-tetragonal
Crystal Structure
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Data courtesy of the American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database. Click on an AMCSD ID to view structure
| ID | Species | Reference | Link | Year | Locality | Pressure (GPa) | Temp (K) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0009758 | Cryptomelane | Post J E, Von Dreele R B, Buseck P R (1982) Symmetry and cation displacements in hollandites: structure refinements of hollandite, cryptomelane and priderite Acta Crystallographica B38 1056-1065 |  | 1982 | Chindwara, India | 0 | 293 |
| 0016237 | Cryptomelane | Vicat J, Fanchon E, Strobel P, Tran Qui D (1986) The structure of K1.33Mn8O16 and cation ordering in hollandite-type structures _cod_database_code 1008322 Acta Crystallographica B42 162-167 | | 1986 | synthetic | 0 | 293 |
CIF Raw Data - click here to close
X-Ray Powder Diffraction
Loading XRD data...
Data courtesy of RRUFF project at University of Arizona, used with permission.
Powder Diffraction Data:
| d-spacing | Intensity |
|---|---|
| 6.90 Å | (90) |
| 4.90 Å | (80) |
| 3.45 Å | (10) |
| 3.10 Å | (80) |
| 2.46 Å | (10) |
| 2.39 Å | (100) |
| 2.19 Å | (20) |
| 2.15 Å | (60) |
| 1.92 Å | (10) |
| 1.83 Å | (60) |
| 1.64 Å | (30) |
| 1.54 Å | (60) |
| 1.42 Å | (40) |
| 1.35 Å | (50) |
| 1.29 Å | (20) |
Comments:
ICDD 20-908 (Tetragonal; Phillipsburg, Montana, USA). Very similar to coronadite. ICDD 34-168 (Monoclinic; Chindwara, India; calculated): 7.007 (79), 6.892 (82), 4.977 (72), 4.852 (91), 3.504 (15), 3.446 (15), 3.156 (43), 3.124 (99), 3.092 (100), 3.062 (44), 2.753 (3), 2.489 (25), 2.426 (22), 2.414 (54), 2.404 (99), 2.393 (77), 2.336 (10), 2.297 (6), 2.229 (5), 2.195 (20), 2.171 (36), 2.147 (33), 1.9897 (5), 1.9636 (4), 1.9567 (7), 1.9440 (3), 1.9110 (5), 1.8991 (2), 1.8504 (24), 1.8417 (22), 1.8258 (19), 1.8175 (32), 1.7518 (3), 1.7230 (3), 1.6876 (3), 1.6831 (3),1.6591 (24), 1.6360 (3), 1.6266 (3), 1.6174 (25), 1.6092 (15), 1.6079 (4), 1.5779 (3), 1.5567 (14), 1.5439 (32), 1.5362 (28), 1.5308 (17), 1.5239 (15), 1.4353 (19), 1.4239 (5)
Geological Environment
Paragenetic Mode(s):
| Paragenetic Mode | Earliest Age (Ga) |
|---|---|
| High-? alteration and/or metamorphism | |
| 32 : Ba/Mn/Pb/Zn deposits, including metamorphic deposits | |
| Stage 7: Great Oxidation Event | <2.4 |
| 47e : [Vanadates, chromates, manganates] | |
| 47h : [Near-surface oxidized, dehydrated minerals] |
Type Occurrence of Cryptomelane
Synonyms of Cryptomelane
Other Language Names for Cryptomelane
Varieties of Cryptomelane
| Thallium-bearing Cryptomelane | A thallium-bearing cryptomelane (0.23 at% Tl). Compare thalliomelane. Originally reported from Peach Springs District, Coconino Co., Arizona, USA. |
Relationship of Cryptomelane to other Species
Member of:
Other Members of Coronadite Group:
| Coronadite | Pb(Mn4+6Mn3+2)O16 | Mon. 2/m |
| Ferricoronadite | Pb(Mn4+6Fe3+2)O16 | Tet. 4/m : I4/m |
| Ferrihollandite | Ba(Mn4+6Fe3+2)O16 | Mon. 2/m |
| Hollandite | Ba(Mn4+6Mn3+2)O16 | Mon. 2/m |
| Manjiroite | Na(Mn4+7Mn3+)O16 | Tet. 4/m : I4/m |
| Strontiomelane | Sr(Mn4+6Mn3+2)O16 | Mon. 2/m : P21/b |
| Thalliomelane | Tl(Mn4+7.5Cu2+0.5)O16 | Tet. 4/m : I4/m |
Common Associates
Associated Minerals Based on Photo Data:
| 91 photos of Cryptomelane associated with Goethite | Fe3+O(OH) |
| 48 photos of Cryptomelane associated with Lepidocrocite | Fe3+O(OH) |
| 34 photos of Cryptomelane associated with Pyrolusite | Mn4+O2 |
| 30 photos of Cryptomelane associated with Hollandite | Ba(Mn4+6Mn3+2)O16 |
| 26 photos of Cryptomelane associated with Scholzite | CaZn2(PO4)2 · 2H2O |
| 25 photos of Cryptomelane associated with Malachite | Cu2(CO3)(OH)2 |
| 24 photos of Cryptomelane associated with Azurite | Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2 |
| 17 photos of Cryptomelane associated with Wad | |
| 17 photos of Cryptomelane associated with Quartz | SiO2 |
| 13 photos of Cryptomelane associated with Aurorite | Mn2+Mn4+3O7 · 3H2O |
Related Minerals - Strunz-mindat Grouping
| 4.DK.K | Thalliomelane | Tl(Mn4+7.5Cu2+0.5)O16 |
| 4.DK. | Ferrihollandite | Ba(Mn4+6Fe3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.4.DK. | Ferricoronadite | Pb(Mn4+6Fe3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.05a | Manjiroite | Na(Mn4+7Mn3+)O16 |
| 4.DK.05b | Mannardite | Ba(Ti4+6V3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.05b | Redledgeite | Ba(Ti4+6Cr3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.05 | Akaganeite | (Fe3+,Ni2+)8(OH,O)16Cl1.25 · nH2O |
| 4.DK.05a | Coronadite | Pb(Mn4+6Mn3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.05a | Hollandite | Ba(Mn4+6Mn3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.05a | Strontiomelane | Sr(Mn4+6Mn3+2)O16 |
| 4.DK.05b | Henrymeyerite | Ba(Ti4+7Fe2+)O16 |
| 4.DK.05b | Priderite | K(Ti4+7Fe3+)O16 |
| 4.DK.10 | Romanèchite | (Ba,H2O)2(Mn4+,Mn3+)5O10 |
| 4.DK.10 | Todorokite | (Na,Ca,K,Ba,Sr)1-x(Mn,Mg,Al)6O12 · 3-4H2O |
Radioactivity
Radioactivity:
| Element | % Content | Activity (Bq/kg) | Radiation Type |
|---|---|---|---|
| Uranium (U) | 0.0000% | 0 | α, β, γ |
| Thorium (Th) | 0.0000% | 0 | α, β, γ |
| Potassium (K) | 5.3224% | 1,650 | β, γ |
For comparison:
- Banana: ~15 Bq per fruit
- Granite: 1,000–3,000 Bq/kg
- EU exemption limit: 10,000 Bq/kg
Note: Risk is shown relative to daily recommended maximum exposure to non-background radiation of 1000 µSv/year. Note that natural background radiation averages around 2400 µSv/year so in reality these risks are probably extremely overstated! With infrequent handling and safe storage natural radioactive minerals do not usually pose much risk.
Interactive Simulator:
Note: The mass selector refers to the mass of radioactive mineral present, not the full specimen, also be aware that the matrix may also be radioactive, possibly more radioactive than this mineral!
Activity: –
| Distance | Dose rate | Risk |
|---|---|---|
| 1 cm | ||
| 10 cm | ||
| 1 m |
The external dose rate (D) from a radioactive mineral is estimated by summing the gamma radiation contributions from its Uranium, Thorium, and Potassium content, disregarding daughter-product which may have a significant effect in some cases (eg 'pitchblende'). This involves multiplying the activity (A, in Bq) of each element by its specific gamma ray constant (Γ), which accounts for its unique gamma emissions. The total unshielded dose at 1 cm is then scaled by the square of the distance (r, in cm) and multiplied by a shielding factor (μshield). This calculation provides a 'worst-case' or 'maximum risk' estimate because it assumes the sample is a point source and entirely neglects any self-shielding where radiation is absorbed within the mineral itself, meaning actual doses will typically be lower. The resulting dose rate (D) is expressed in microsieverts per hour (μSv/h).
D = ((AU × ΓU) + (ATh × ΓTh) + (AK × ΓK)) / r2 × μshield
Fluorescence of Cryptomelane
Not fluorescent in ultraviolet
Other Information
Health Risks:
No information on health risks for this material has been entered into the database. You should always treat mineral specimens with care.
Internet Links for Cryptomelane
mindat.org URL:
https://www.mindat.org/min-1164.html
Please feel free to link to this page.
Please feel free to link to this page.
Search Engines:
External Links:
References for Cryptomelane
Reference List:
Richmond, Wallace E., Fleischer, Michael (1942) Cryptomelane, a new name for the commonest of the "psilomelane" minerals. American Mineralogist, 27 (9) 607-610
Mukherjee, Bibhuti (1959) X-ray study of psilomelane and cryptomelane. Mineralogical Magazine and Journal of the Mineralogical Society, 32 (245) 166-171 doi:10.1180/minmag.1959.32.245.08
Larson, Lawrence T. (1964) Geology and mineralogy of certain manganese oxide deposits. Economic Geology, 59 (1) 54-78 doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.59.1.54
Ramdohr, Paul (1969) The Ore Minerals and their Intergrowths. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 1174pp. doi:10.1016/c2013-0-10027-x
Potter, Russell M., Rossman, George R (1979) The tetravalent manganese oxides: identification, hydration, and structural relationships by infrared spectroscopy. American Mineralogist, 64 (11-12) 1199-1218
Localities for Cryptomelane
symbol to view information about a locality.
The Locality List
- This locality has map coordinates listed.
- This locality has estimated coordinates.
ⓘ - Click for references and further information on this occurrence.
? - Indicates mineral may be doubtful at this locality.
- Good crystals or important locality for species.
- World class for species or very significant.
(TL) - Type Locality for a valid mineral species.
(FRL) - First Recorded Locality for everything else (eg varieties).
All localities listed without proper references should be considered as questionable.
Argentina | |
| Padrón de Minas de la Provincia de Catamarca (1971) |
| Padrón de Minas de la Provincia de Catamarca (1971) | |
| Raúl J. Tauber Larry´s collection |
| Brodtkorb (2002) +2 other references | |
| Márquez-Zavalía et al. (2016) | |
| Padrón de Minas de la Provincia de Catamarca (1971) | |
| Padrón de Minas de la Provincia de Catamarca (1971) | |
| Padrón de Minas de la Provincia de Catamarca (1971) |
| Padrón de Minas de la Provincia de Catamarca (1971) | |
| Padrón de Minas de la Provincia de Catamarca (1971) | |
| Padrón de Minas de la Provincia de Catamarca (1971) | |
| Padrón de Minas de la Provincia de Chubut (2005) |
| Dina (1993) |
| ... |
| ROBL +1 other reference |
| Ronald G. Simpson (2017) +1 other reference | |
| Galliski et al. (2011) |
| DEL BLANCO |
| Raúl Jorge Tauber Larry +1 other reference | |
| Hugo A. Peña (1970) | |
| Hugo A. Peña (1970) |
| Hugo A. Peña (1970) |
| Hugo A. Peña (1970) |
| Raúl Tauber Larry |
| G. Álvarez (1938) | |
| G. Álvarez (1938) |
| G. Álvarez (1938) | |
| G. Álvarez (1938) | |
Australia | |
| Brown et al. (1992) |
| Geochemical et al. (ed.) +1 other reference |
| Brown et al. (1992) |
| Brown et al. (1992) |
| Brown et al. (1992) | |
| Gilligan et al. (1992) |
| Gilligan et al. (1992) |
| Gilligan et al. (1992) |
| Birch et al. (1997) |
| Jones (1955) +1 other reference |
| Jones (1955) +1 other reference | |
| Ostwald (1981) +2 other references |
| Scott (1987) |
| Lottermoser et al. (2008) |
| Lottermoser et al. (2008) |
| Brooks (1962) |
| Brooks (1962) |
| Noble R.J et al. (1983) |
| Pring et al. (1994) |
| Sorrell (n.d.) +1 other reference |
| SA Geodata Database - Mineral Deposit ... +1 other reference |
| Elliott (1991) |
| Carnegie Museum of Natural History ... |
| Nickel et al. (1993) |
| Nickel et al. (1993) | |
| Williams +3 other references |
| The Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (1977) |
| Dammer et al. (1999) +1 other reference | |
| tngltd.com.au (2011) |
| Pioneer Nickel Ltd. Media Release |
| Le Gleuher M. (2008) |
Austria | |
| European Journal of Mineralogy 17 (1) |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| - (n.d.) | |
| Taucher (1995) |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) +1 other reference |
| Kolitsch et al. (2024) |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Paulitsch (1951) |
| Exel (1993) |
| Postl et al. (1996) |
| Taucher (1989) +1 other reference |
| Uwe Kolitsch |
| Neinaveie (1979) |
| Kolitsch (2017) |
| Kolitsch (2017) | |
Belgium | |
| Mélon et al. (1976) +3 other references |
| Malaise (1913) +2 other references | |
| Mélon et al. (1976) +1 other reference | |
| Gustine (2002) +2 other references |
| Hatert et al. (2002) | |
| Mélon et al. (1976) +1 other reference |
| Van Tassel (1959) +3 other references |
| Mélon et al. (1976) +1 other reference |
| Hatert et al. (2002) | |
| Hatert et al. (2002) |
| Mélon et al. (1976) +2 other references |
| Fransolet (1979) +1 other reference | |
| Mélon et al. (1976) +4 other references | |
| Hatert et al. (2002) | |
| Hatert et al. (2002) | |
| Mélon et al. (1976) +2 other references | |
| Hatert et al. (2002) |
| Mélon et al. (1976) |
Bolivia | |
| Petrov (n.d.) |
| Osvaldo R. Arce Burgoa (2007) |
| Osvaldo R. Arce Burgoa (2007) |
| Kempff et al. (La Paz, 2009) |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | |
| Vujanovic (1962) |
Brazil | |
| Cassedanne et al. (1980) |
| Santos et al. (2021) +1 other reference |
| Barbosa (1950) |
| Federico Ahlfeld and Alejandro Schneider-Scherbina (1964) | |
| Schneider et al. (1983) | |
| acd.ufrj.br (2002) |
| Bermanec et al. (2011) |
| Scholz et al. (2014) | |
| Cassedanne et al. (1999) |
| Cabral et al. (2002) |
| Cabral AR et al. (Chico Rei) | |
| Waber (1991) |
| Nik Nikiforou specimen; Jeff Scovil ... | |
| de Oliveira Carmo et al. (2006) |
| Silva et al. (2020) |
| Moroni et al. (2001) +1 other reference |
| Proceedings 30th Intl Geol Cong Vol 16 ... |
| Uchôa Filho et al. (2025) | |
| Costa et al. (2016) |
Bulgaria | |
| Vassileva et al. (2007) |
Burkina Faso | |
| Hénocque et al. (1998) |
Canada | |
| Reiner Mielke 2014 |
| László Horváth unpubl. data ... |
Chile | |
| Arancibia et al. (2006) |
| Pincheira et al. (1990) |
| XRD by Joachim Lorenz |
| biblioserver.sernageomin.cl (n.d.) |
| samples analysed by Gerhard Mohn and ... |
| SEM-EDS and XRD by Joy Desor and ... |
| samples analysed by Jochen Schlüter | |
| samples analysed by Gerhard Mohn and ... | |
China | |
| Guilin Institute of Metallurgical Geology et al. (1976) +3 other references |
| Guilin Institute of Metallurgical Geology et al. (1976) +1 other reference | |
| Bin Yu (2005) |
| Liangkai Gu (1986) |
| Liangkai Gu (1986) |
| Liangkai Gu (1986) |
| Liangkai Gu (1986) | |
| Liangkai Gu (1986) |
| Liangkai Gu (1986) | |
| Liangkai Gu (1986) |
| Liangkai Gu (1986) | |
| Liangkai Gu (1986) +3 other references |
| Ruixia Hao and Guangyue Guan (1995) |
| Niu +2 other references |
| Shouquan Zhu (2001) |
| Yinsheng Lang et al. (2007) |
| Guilin Institute of Metallurgical Geology et al. (1976) +1 other reference |
| Shikun Huang (1990) |
| Guilin Institute of Metallurgical Geology et al. (1976) |
| Guilin Institute of Metallurgical Geology et al. (1976) | |
| Shikun Huang (1990) |
| Shikun Huang (1990) |
| Guilin Institute of Metallurgical Geology et al. (1976) |
| Junzhen Huang (2008) |
| Junzhen Huang (2008) | |
| Yinsheng Lang et al. (2007) |
| Yinsheng Lang et al. (2007) | |
| Guilin Institute of Metallurgical Geology et al. (1976) | |
| Guilin Institute of Metallurgical Geology et al. (1976) | |
| Yinsheng Lang et al. (2007) | |
| Yinsheng Lang et al. (2007) | |
| Shikun Huang (1990) |
| PXRD by Alfredo Petrov |
| Jingqu Yao (1992) |
| Jingqu Yao (1992) | |
| Shikun Huang (1990) |
| Jingqu Yao (1992) |
| Ziqiang Wei (1976) |
| Zhao +3 other references | |
| Jiuling Zhang (1982) |
| Zhao et al. (2024) |
| Shikun Huang (1990) +1 other reference |
| Zhicheng Lü et al. (2002) |
| Shikun Huang (1990) |
| Guilin Institute of Metallurgical Geology et al. (1976) |
| Guilin Metallurgical Institute of Geology (1976) |
| Qingrong Zheng et al. (2012) |
| |
| Xingyu Yang (1989) +1 other reference |
Cuba | |
| Acta Geológica Hispánica et al. (1-4) |
Czech Republic | |
| Vrtiška et al. (2016) +1 other reference |
| Lapis 2002 (7/8) |
| Jirásek et al. (2016) |
| Jirásek et al. (2015) |
| Dolníček et al. (2023) |
| Matýsek et al. (2014) |
| Černý (1961) |
| Exnar |
| Pauliš et al. (2019) |
| Jirásek J et al. (2022) |
| Jirásek J et al. (2022) |
DR Congo | |
| Paul De Bondt collection. |
| Uchôa Filho et al. (2025) |
| De Putter et al. (2018) +1 other reference | |
Egypt | |
| S. Tosson et al. |
| El-Habaak et al. (2016) |
| Afify et al. (2022) |
Fiji | |
| Skiba (1964) | |
Finland | |
| Ilkka Mikkola collection |
France | |
| Bariand et al. (n.d.) |
| G. Aubert : "Les coupoles granitiques de Montebras et d'Echassières (Massif Central Français) |
| Yannick Vessely collection |
| |
| Cuchet et al. (2000) | |
| R. Pierrot |
| Wittern et al. (1997) |
| Perseil (1975) | |
| Perseil (1975) | |
| Wittern et al. (1997) |
| Hohl (1994) |
| Berger et al. (2011) +1 other reference |
| FONTAN F (1976) |
| Lièvre et al. (2002) |
| Lièvre et al. (2002) |
| Meisser et al. (2008) |
| Lheur (2023) |
| Favreau et al. (2010) |
| Inventaire minéralogique de la France ... |
| De Ascenção Guedes et al. (2002) |
| De Ascenção Guedes et al. (2002) |
| Pierrot et al. (1976) |
| "Les minéralisations associées au volcanisme andésitique de Biot-Villeneuve Loubet (Alpes Maritimes) |
Gabon | |
| Weber et al. (1979) +1 other reference |
Germany | |
| Walenta (1992) |
| Gehlen (1958) +1 other reference | |
| Walenta (1989) +1 other reference |
| Walenta (1992) |
| Walenta (1992) |
| Lorenz (1991) +1 other reference |
| 70. +1 other reference |
| Hock et al. (1992) |
| Weiß (1990) |
| Andritzky (1963) |
| Dill et al. (2009) |
| Dill et al. (2012) | |
| Mücke et al. (1989) |
| Kastning et al. (1996) +2 other references | |
| Dill et al. (2010) | |
| Collection of Steffen Michalski |
| Collection of Steffen Michalski | |
| Collection of Steffen Michalski | |
| Petitjean et al. (2007) |
| Petitjean (2004) |
| Blaß (2002) |
| |
| 50. +1 other reference |
| Weiß (1990) |
| Rolf Golze +3 other references |
| Wittern (2001) |
| Henrich (2009) |
| Rolf Golze +3 other references |
| www.mineralienatlas.de (2025) |
| Wittern (2001) +1 other reference |
| Henrich et al. (2024) |
| Schnorrer et al. (2000) |
| Wittern (2001) |
| Der Aufschluss Vol.55 |
| SEM-EDS by Joy Desor |
| 54 (in German) +1 other reference |
| Lapis 2003 (2) |
| Wittern (2001) |
| Wittern (2001) | |
| www.mineralienatlas.de (n.d.) |
| Wittern (2001) | |
| www.dergraul.de (2001) |
| www.dergraul.de (2001) | |
| www.dergraul.de (2001) | |
| www.dergraul.de (2001) | |
| Witzke et al. (2001) |
| Witzke et al. (2001) |
| Witzke et al. (2001) | |
| Witzke et al. (2001) |
| Witzke et al. (2001) | |
| Wittern (2001) |
| Jahn (1999) |
| Paul (1995) |
| Wittern (2001) |
| |
| |
Ghana | |
| Mücke et al. (1999) |
Greece | |
| |
| LAPIS 24 (7/8) +1 other reference | |
| |
| Lapis et al. (1999) |
| Lapis et al. (1999) | |
| Blaß et al. (1998) |
| Hochleitner (1980) +1 other reference |
| Vasilatos et al. (2018) | |
| Lapis et al. (1999) +1 other reference |
| Lapis et al. (1999) |
| Simon et al. (2017) |
| Stouraiti et al. (2022) |
| Fornadel et al. (2011) |
| Φωτιάδης (2010) |
| Φωτιάδης (2010) |
| Lykakis et al. (2017) |
| Kilias +6 other references |
| Tombros et al. (2023) |
Greenland | |
| Petersen (2001) |
Hungary | |
| Sándor et al. (2005) |
| Sándor Szakáll +1 other reference |
| Färber (n.d.) | |
| Zajzon N et al. (20014) | |
| Gál (2011) |
| Sándor et al. (2005) |
| Sándor et al. (2005) |
| Sándor et al. (2005) | |
| www.mineralienfreunde.de (2003) |
| Koch (1985) |
| Sándor et al. (2005) | |
India | |
| Sivaprakash (1980) |
| Sivaprakash (1980) | |
| Sivaprakash (1980) | |
| Sivaprakash (1981) | |
| Sivaprakash (1980) | |
| Sivaprakash (1980) | |
| Rasul (1965) |
| Rao et al. (1979) |
| Shukla +1 other reference |
| Roy (1962) | |
| Miura et al. (1987) |
| Clark (1993) | |
| Roy et al. (1968) | |
| Roy (1968) |
| Yadav (2022) |
| Nayak et al. (1998) |
| Acharya et al. (1997) |
| Nicholson et al. (1997) |
| Rao +1 other reference |
Iran | |
| Rajabi et al. (2025) |
| Rajabi et al. (2025) |
| Rajabi et al. (2025) | |
| Lotfi et al. (2017) |
| Khodami et al. (2024) |
Ireland | |
| |
Israel | |
| Segev et al. (1992) |
| Itamer (1993) |
Italy | |
| Marco Ciriotti collection (Uwe Kolitsch PXRD) |
| Kienast et al. (1983) |
| Sinisi et al. (2018) |
| Bernardini et al. (2015) +1 other reference |
| - (n.d.) |
| |
| Cámara et al. (2017) |
| Matteo Giai et al. (2023) +5 other references |
| Piccoli et al. (2007) | |
| Parola et al. (2023) +1 other reference |
| Damiano (1977) +1 other reference |
| Alessandro Cantamessa collection |
| SEM/EDS 18/09/2001 MNHN-Paris | |
| Bortolozzi (n.d.) |
| Stara et al. (1996) |
| Biagioni C. et al. (2016) |
| P. Roegner - (raggi X, EDS) |
| Boscardin (2014) |
Japan | |
| Am Min 48:952-954 |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| Mineralogical Journal Vol. 18 (1996) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) | |
| Nambu et al (1979) |
| Forrest Cureton specimens |
| - (n.d.) |
| J.G. Wingard collection | |
| Azami et al. (2025) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) | |
| Nambu M (1967) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) +1 other reference | |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) | |
| PXRD and XRF by John Attard |
| Yamada (2004) |
| Fuzimoto (2006) |
| Enami et al. (2001) | |
| Yamada (2004) |
| - (unpublished species lists maintained by local collectors) +1 other reference |
| - (n.d.) |
| Akira Kato (undated manuscript) | |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
| A. Kato et al. |
Jordan | |
| Qatar Univ. Sci. J. 21:101-117. |
Kazakhstan | |
| Evseev (1995) +1 other reference |
Madagascar | |
| Pezzotta F. et al. (2004) |
| Dekoninck et al. (2024) |
| Knut Edvard Larsen collection # M-539 |
Mauritania | |
| Livrable 87 +1 other reference |
Mexico | |
| Panczner (1987) +1 other reference |
| Moore (1998) +1 other reference |
| Cross (2006) |
| Peter Megaw |
| McAnulty et al. (1969) |
| McAnulty et al. (1969) | |
| Rocks & Min.: 56:247. +1 other reference |
| Ref.: Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas et al. (2000) |
Mongolia | |
| Kuleshov (2003) |
Morocco | |
| Favreau & Dietrich (2006) |
| Verhaert et al. (2018) |
Mozambique | |
| Neves et al. (1968) +1 other reference |
Namibia | |
| von Bezing (2007) |
| Mineralogical Research Co. specimen |
New Zealand | |
| Railton et al. (1990) | |
Niger | |
| Machens (1964) |
North America Plate | |
| Belkin et al. (1987) | |
Norway | |
| Husdal (2008) |
Poland | |
| Körber et al. (2005) |
| Petrov (n.d.) |
| Pieczka et al. (2018) +1 other reference |
| Lis et al. (1986) |
| Jedlička J. et al. (Polsko) |
Portugal | |
| Alves et al. (2017) |
| Alves (n.d.) | |
| Idoia Garate-Olabe et al. (Guarda, Portugal) |
| Schnorrer-Köhler et al. (1991) |
| Alves (n.d.) | |
| Martins da Pedra collection |
| Rui Nunes July 2006 | |
| Pedro Alves collection |
Romania | |
| Munteanu (1993) +1 other reference |
| minerals-of-the-carpathians.eu (2008) |
Russia | |
| Vera N. Smol'yaninova data |
| Pekov (1998) |
| Takahashi +3 other references |
| Pavel.M. Kartashov (n.d.) +1 other reference |
| [World of Stones 95:5-6 |
| ... | |
| Pavel.M. Kartashov (n.d.) |
| Pavel M. Kartashov collection (#3079a) | |
| Chakhmouradian et al. (2005) | |
| Sharkov (2009) |
| Talovina et al. (2003) |
| Kasatkin et al. (2021) |
| Hyršl (1992) |
Rwanda | |
| Daltry et al. (1998) |
Slovakia | |
| POLÁK et al. (2017) |
| Jeleň et al. (2006) |
| Rojkovič (2001) |
| Radvanec M. and Gonda S. (2020) +1 other reference |
| Rojkovič I. et al. (2003) |
South Africa | |
| Cairncross et al. (2008) |
| pyrolusite +1 other reference |
| J. Gutzmer et al. (2002) |
| Martini (1997) |
| Atanasova et al. (2016) |
| Robert O. Meyer collection +3 other references |
| Econ Geol (1990) +1 other reference |
| Gutzmer (1996) |
| Gutzmer (1996) |
| Gutzmer (1996) | |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) +1 other reference | |
| Vafeas et al. (2018) | |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) | |
| Beukes et al. (1995) | |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) | |
Spain | |
| Georges FAVREAU collection & EDX ... |
| Jorge (2000) +1 other reference |
| A. Crespo & R. Lunar (1997) +1 other reference |
| Calvo (2009) |
| Joan Rosell - Jordi Ibàñez (10/2018) |
| Col. Agustin Agudo Espinosa. |
| Viñals et al. (2011) |
Switzerland | |
| Stalder et al. (1998) |
| Ansermet (2012) |
Togo | |
| Mémoire No 2 +1 other reference |
Turkey | |
| TEKER et al. (2006) |
| Öztürk (1997) |
| Kines (1969) |
| Öztürk et al. (1995) |
| USGS Prof Paper 550C ppC158-C161 | |
UK | |
| Cotterel (2010) |
| - (2003) |
| Green et al. (2008) |
| Mike Leppington collection (visual identification) | |
| Turner (2006) +1 other reference |
| Wilson et al. (1970) +1 other reference |
| National Musuem of Wales specimen |
| National Museum of Wales database |
| Tom Cotterell/Amgueddfa Cymru - Museum ... |
| Tom Cotterell/Amgueddfa Cymru - Museum ... |
Ukraine | |
| Geologiya SSSR (The geology of USSR) |
| Tischenko Alexander |
| Alexander I. Tischenko (1996) |
| Varentsov (1996) |
| O.K.Babynin et al. (2006) |
USA | |
| Dean (1995) |
| King (n.d.) |
| Graeme (1993) |
| Grant et al. (2005) |
| Richmond et al. (1942) +2 other references | |
| Luetcke (n.d.) | |
| Luetcke (n.d.) | |
| Richmond et al. (1942) | |
| Luetcke (n.d.) |
| Crittenden et al. (1962) +1 other reference |
| Potter (1949) +2 other references |
| Bargar et al. (2009) |
| Crittenden et al. (1962) +2 other references |
| Merritt Stephen Enders (2000) |
| MinRec 19 (3) |
| Mouat (1962) +1 other reference |
| Mouat (1962) +3 other references |
| Mouat (1962) +1 other reference | |
| Mouat (1962) +1 other reference |
| Mouat (1962) +1 other reference | |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Bideaux et al. (1960) +2 other references |
| Thomssen (1983) | |
| Bideaux et al. (1960) +2 other references | |
| Josef Vajdak (2002) |
| Hewett et al. (1960) +2 other references |
| Davis (1975) +1 other reference |
| MRDS database Dep. ID file #10048336. |
| Fleischer (1943) +1 other reference |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Hewett et al. (1960) +2 other references |
| Howard (1987) |
| Rocks & Min.: 63: 113. +2 other references |
| Smith (1988) | |
| Rocks & min.:63:118 +1 other reference |
| Rocks & Min.:63:118. | |
| Rocks & min.:63:118 +1 other reference | |
| Rocks & min.:63:118 +1 other reference | |
| Rocks & min.:63:118 +1 other reference | |
| Rocks & Min.: 63:118. | |
| Rocks & min.:63:118 +1 other reference |
| Rocks & Min.: 63:118. |
| Rocks & Min.: 63:118. | |
| Rocks & Min.: 63:118. | |
| Rocks & Min.: 63: 118 | |
| Rocks & Min.: 63:118. | |
| Smith (1988) |
| Rocks & Min.:63:120. |
| Rocks & Min.:63:120 +1 other reference | |
| Rocks & Min.:63:120 +1 other reference | |
| Rocks & Min.:63:120 +1 other reference | |
| Rocks & Min.:63:120 +1 other reference | |
| Rocks & Min.:63:120 +1 other reference | |
| Rocks & Min.: 63: 120. | |
| Rocks & Min.: 63: 120. | |
| Rocks & Min.: 63:120. | |
| Rocks & Min.: 63:120. | |
| Rocks & Min.: 63:120. | |
| Rocks & Min.: 63:120. | |
| Rocks & Min.: 63:120. | |
| Rocks & Min.: 63:120. | |
| Rocks & Min.:63:118. |
| Rocks & Minerals (1988) |
| Hall (1963) +1 other reference |
| Hall (1963) +3 other references | |
| Hall (1963) +3 other references | |
| White (1955) +3 other references |
| Dr Robert Housley using SEM-EDS |
| Hewett (1964) +2 other references |
| Hewett (1964) +2 other references |
| Foord et al. (1986) |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| Eckel et al. (1997) | |
| Eckel et al. (1997) | |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| Rocks & Minerals (July-August, 2002) |
| Nikischer (2023) |
| Moritz (n.d.) |
| Rocks & Min.: 64:185. |
| Matrix 10:4 pp 245-259 | |
| Cook (1978) |
| King et al. (1994) |
| King (2009) |
| King (2009) | |
| King (2009) |
| King (2000) |
| King (n.d.) |
| King et al. (1994) +1 other reference |
| King et al. (1994) +1 other reference | |
| King et al. (6) | |
| King et al. (6) | |
| King (n.d.) | |
| King (n.d.) | |
| C. Burtic & R. Dionne collections. +1 other reference |
| Tim Blake and Scott Soucey specimens |
| Thompson et al. (1998) |
| Plante (1992) |
| Harvard University spec. 90204 |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) | |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) | |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) | |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) | |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) | |
| Bornhorst et al. (1994) |
| USGS Prof Paper 407 |
| Econ Geology (1993) | |
| Prinz (1967) +1 other reference |
| H.A. Barrett and M.P.S. Krekeler (2011) | |
| Gobla (2012) | |
| Prinz (1967) +1 other reference | |
| Szarkowski (2019) |
| American Mineralogist 47:59-66 |
| Weed (1912) +1 other reference |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| USGS Bull 1538D |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Carlos et al. (1993) +1 other reference |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Castor et al. (2004) | |
| Castor et al. (2004) | |
| Castor et al. (2004) | |
| Frondel (1953) +1 other reference |
| Frondel (1953) +1 other reference | |
| Frondel (1953) +1 other reference | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) |
| NMGS 37th Field Conference |
| AmMin 47:152 |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| - (1965) |
| Northrop et al. (1996) |
| NMBMMR Memoir 15 Geology and Technology ... |
| NMBMMR Memoir 15 Geology and Technology ... | |
| NMBMMR Memoir 15 Geology and Technology ... | |
| NMBMMR Memoir 15 Geology and Technology ... | |
| NMBMMR Memoir 15 Geology and Technology ... |
| Maxwell et al. (1986) |
| NMBMMR New Mexico Mineral symposium (2001) |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Jerry Cone Collection |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) +1 other reference |
| Lueth et al. (2004) | |
| Lueth et al. (2004) | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Horton et al. (1981) +1 other reference |
| Rocks & Min. vol. 72 (1997) |
| Rocks & Min. vol. 72 (1997) | |
| R&M 72:4 pp 252-264 | |
| Lapham et al. (1976) |
| |
| Beste (2005) |
| Henderson (1980) |
| Ransom (1974) |
| Tony Nikischer specimen |
| Henderson (1980) |
| Michael W. Kieron collection |
| Michael W. Kieron collection |
| Roberts et al. (1965) |
| R&M 72:4 pp 268-270 |
| Paris (2011) |
| Paris (2011) |
| Paris (2011) | |
| Paris (2011) | |
| Paris (2011) |
| Paris (2011) | |
| Rocks and Minerals |
| in the personal collection of Jennifer ... |
| Am Min 72:1211-1224 |
| Bullock (1981) +1 other reference |
| Collection of Rick Dalrymple |
| Bullock (1981) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Rocks & Min.:60:165. |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) | |
| Dana 7:I:564 +1 other reference |
| Robin D. Tibbit (deceased) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) | |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Gilbert H. Espenshade (1954) | |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) | |
| Dietrich (1990) | |
| Dietrich (1990) | |
| Dietrich (1990) | |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) | |
| Robinson (2013) |
| Robinson (2013) |
| Van Rythoven et al. (2020) |
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Salisbury Mine, Salisbury, Litchfield County, Connecticut, USA