Assigning responsibility for retraction is a crucial rhetorical strategy for communicating retraction stigma in retraction notices. However, the linguistic realization of this strategy remains largely unexplored. This study addresses the gap by analyzing 3,296 retraction notices for the disclosure of retraction-engendering acts by responsibility-bearing authors and the grammatical constructions used to represent agency and assign responsibility. It is found that retraction-engendering acts were disclosed in 92.1% of the retraction notices. In the retraction notices disclosing these acts, seven distinct grammatical constructions (...) were employed to represent agency linguistically and encode responsibility attributively. Significant variations were identified in both the disclosure of retraction-engendering acts and the grammatical representation of responsibility across four contextual factors: academic disciplines (hard disciplines vs. soft disciplines), retraction periods (1980–2009 vs. 2010–2019), retraction notice authorship (i.e. journal authorities vs. authors of retracted publications), and retraction reasons (i.e. blatant misconduct vs. inappropriate conduct vs. questionable conduct vs. honest error). (shrink)

The assignment of elementary functions to biological macromolecules, and in particular to proteins, plays a major role in contemporary biology. One may see therein a natural tendency: once researchers focused their efforts on the characterization of macromolecules, from the 1930s onward, the functions hitherto ascribed to organs or cells were transferred to macromolecules. This “logical” presentation, however, overlooks the historical dynamic that transiently placed functional macromolecules center stage and which, more recently, has questioned this view. Here, I consider successively (...) the circumstances of the birth and development of the notion of macromolecular function and then, from the 1960s, its extension and attendant difficulties. We shall see that divergent tendencies coexist today in biology and that the well-defined assignment of functions to macromolecules accompanies the tendency to “raise” the function to the supramolecular level. (shrink)

In the first section of this paper I present the measurement-theoretic fallacy of 'over-assignment of structure': the unwarranted assumption that every numeric relation holding among two (or more) numbers represents some empirical, physical relation among the objects to which these numbers are assigned as measures (e.g., of temperature). In the second section I argue that a generalized form of this fallacy arises in various philosophical contexts, in the form of a misguided, over-extended application of one conceptual domain to another. (...) Three examples are given: (i) the reduction of arithmetic into set theory, (ii) the ascription of full-blown intentional states to (at least some) non-overtly intentional creatures, such as Wittgenstein's builders, and (iii) the analysis of some modal notions as involving quantification over possible worlds (or their substitutes). The discussion of the third example gives rise to a novel account of possible-worlds talk. (shrink)

In [2] T. J. Carlson introduces an approach to ordinal notation systems which is based on the notion of Σ₁-elementary substructure. We gave a detailed ordinal arithmetical analysis (see [7]) of the ordinal structure based on Σ₁-elementarity as defined in [2]. This involved the development of an appropriate ordinal arithmetic that is based on a system of classical ordinal notations derived from Skolem hull operators, see [6]. In the present paper we establish an effective order isomorphism between the classical and (...) the new system of ordinal notations using the results from [6] and [7]. Moreover, on the basis of a concept of relativization we develop mutual (relatively) elementary recursive assignments which are uniform with respect to the underlying relativization. (shrink)

Sortition, i.e. random appointment for public duty, has been employed by societies throughout the years as a firewall designated to prevent illegitimate interference between parties in a legal case and agents of the legal system. In judicial systems of modern western countries, random procedures are mainly employed to select the jury, the court and/or the judge in charge of judging a legal case. Therefore, these random procedures play an important role in the course of a case, and should comply with (...) some principles, such as transparency and complete auditability. Nevertheless, these principles are neglected by random procedures in some judicial systems, which are performed in secrecy and are not auditable by the involved parties. The assignment of cases in the Brazilian Supreme Court is an example of such a procedure, for it is performed using procedures unknown to the parties involved in the judicial cases. This article presents a review of how sortition has been historically employed by societies and discusses how Mathematical Statistics may be applied to random procedures of the judicial system, as it has been applied for almost a century on clinical trials, for example. A statistical model for assessing randomness in case assignment is proposed and applied to the Brazilian Supreme Court. As final remarks, guidelines for the development of good randomization procedures are outlined. (shrink)

Theorists who assign functions to human rights often simply announce them as if they were obvious. Assigning a defining or typical function to a concept, artefact, or practice is not a straightforward empirical matter. It requires observation of uses and products, but also requires judgements of centrality and importance and uses selection criteria that can conflict. The first section of this chapter analyses the assignment of functions to artefacts, concepts, and practices and identifies some key methodological issues. The two (...) following sections explore those methodological issues in the works of three philosophers who assign functions to human rights—James Griffin, John Rawls, and Charles Beitz. The conclusion suggests some ways in which the debate between proponents of “orthodox” and “political” conceptions of human rights can be improved. (shrink)

In What Things Do , Verbeek (What things do: philosophical reflections on technology, agency and design. Penn State University Press, University Park, 2005a ) develops a vocabulary for understanding the social role of technological artifacts in our culture and in our daily lives. He understands this role in terms of the technological mediation of human behavior and perception. To explain mediation, he levels out the modernist separation of subjects and objects by decreasing the autonomy of humans and increasing the activity (...) of things. His approach consists primarily within a clever integration of the theories of Latour and Ihde, which provides a comprehensive understanding of the social role of technological artifacts. Despite the fact that Verbeek’s book is carefully thought out and already quite influential in the field of philosophy of technology, his approach raises some conceptual and pragmatic questions. The conceptual questions concern (a) the precise meaning of the concept of mediation and the possibility of distinguishing between different forms of mediation, and (b) the differences and similarities between human and technological agency and intentionality. The pragmatic questions concern the application of his theory to the realm of engineering ethics. Particularly pressing is the question of how to assign (moral) responsibility to humans when technological artifacts are mediating the outcomes of human actions. With this article, I will raise these issues, and look forward to Verbeek’s reply. (shrink)

Modern health care relies extensively on the use of technologies for assessing and treating patients, so it is important to be certain that health care technologies perform their professed functions in an effective and safe manner. Philosophers of technology have developed methods to assign and evaluate the functions of technological products, the major elements of which are described in the ICE theory. This paper questions whether the standard of evidence advocated by the ICE theory is adequate for ascribing and assessing (...) technologies employed in health care. The paper proposes that the general problem with the standard of evidence embodied in the ICE theory is too permissive for assessing medical technologies, in that it does not take into account the relative benefit and harm of medical technologies in ensuring safe functional performance in patients. The paper illustrates how evidence-based medicine has demonstrated the value of clinical research methods, including observational studies, randomized and non-randomized clinical trials, and formal techniques, such as meta-analysis, to measure therapeutic effectiveness. I argue, therefore, that evidence from clinical research studies should take precedence over the testimonial evidence and other types of non-clinical evidence, in providing justification for health technologies. (shrink)

In this study we test how the composition of crime news articles contributes to reader perceptions of the moral blameworthiness of vehicular homicide offenders. After employing a rigorous process to develop realistic experimental vignettes about vehicular homicide in Minnesota, we deploy a survey to test differential assignments of suggested punishment. We find that readers respond to having very little information by choosing neutral or mid-point levels of punishment, but increase recommended punishment based on information about morally charged conduct. By contrast, (...) information about the perpetrator’s immigration status caused respondents to split into two groups on whether the offense deserves neutral or increased punishment. We find that political ideology strongly influences recommendations for more severe punishment when the immigration status of the perpetrator is revealed. We argue that this difference represents a moral dimension to punishment and blameworthiness that incorporates factors outside the active offense and therefore reveals the social influence of differential reporting in shaping public perception. (shrink)

The segregation of human cytosolic alanine aminotransferase and the individual human chromosomes has been studied in 27 secondary and tertiary rat hepatoma‐human fibroblast hybrids. The staining solution used to visualize AAT activity on starch gels was specific for AAT since it was visualized only when all components of the stain were present. The locus for human AAT1 has been assigned to chromosome 8. Copyright © 1982, Wiley Blackwell. All rights reserved.

A discussion of the way to assign probabilities via the principle of indifference.

In the face of escalating Medicaid costs and anticipated reductions in federal Medicaid spending, states are increasingly converting from fee-for-service to managed health care systems. The interrelated issues of enrollment and auto-assignment are fundamental to the overall success or failure of Medicaid managed care programs. The purpose of this article is to suggest how policy makers, consumer advocates, and providers should address these issues. My major premise is that implementation of managed care will proceed more smoothly if states adopt (...) enrollment strategies that promote voluntary selection of health plans by Medicaid consumers, minimize the likelihood of auto-assignment, and mitigate the negative consequences of mandatory assignment of consumers to managed care organizations.States seeking to implement Medicaid managed care must apply for a waiver from the secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services. Two different types of waivers are available to implement Medicaid managed care. (shrink)

I wholeheartedly endorse Grodzinsky's program of attempting to tie the particular deficits observed in Broca's aphasics' comprehension and production to changes in their mentally represented model of grammar. At the level of detail, however, I see problems with two specific changes that Grodzinsky posits. One is a default Agent-assignment strategy in comprehension. The other is the hypothesis that production involves pruning all functional projections above Agreement Phrase.

Watson argues that living entities do not have intrinsic or primary rights, such as the right to existence, unless they are capable of fulfilling reciprocal duties in a self-conscious manner. I suggest that (1) Watson’s “reciprocity framework” for rights and duties is excessively anthropocentric, (2) that it is founded on the incorrect assumption that the Golden Rule refers to mutual rather than individual duties, and (3) that Watson arbitrarily equates moral rights with primary rights. Since “intrinsic” rights are, in effect, (...) assigned rights, the assignment of rights to a given entity is viewed as a function of its perceived value. Thus, in emphasizing differences between man and other living entities, Watson chooses Cartesian values in assigning rights. Conversely, the ecological and evolutionary relatedness of living things forms the basis for considering rights within the naturalist tradition. (shrink)

It is well-known that the domain of case assignment extends beyond the arguments of a predicate to a range of adverbials in some languages, including Korean. In this paper we concentrate on case-marked Duration/Frequency adverbials which are characterized as ‘extensive measures’ by Wechsler and Lee (1996).∗ In some languages, case-marked adverbials are in the accusative and provide a boundedness to an event (cf. Kuryłowicz (1964), Kiparsky (1998), Kratzer (2004)). However, in Korean, the D/F adverbials can show accusative or nominative, (...) with no apparent difference in their temporal or aspectual semantic contribution. (shrink)

Evidence suggests that men are more confident and less risk averse in financial decision making. Researchers did not address how men and women respond differently to goals in financial decision situations, however. In the present study, men set more challenging personal goals and risked more resources than women in a complex financial decision task. Men did not report higher self-efficacy versus women. As expected, gender interacted with assigned goals to predict self-efficacy, risk behavior, and personal goals. Results concur with recent (...) financial decision research that suggests men and women differ in their use of externally-provided information such as assigned goals. Suggestions for future research are offered and limitations are discussed. (shrink)

Theories of blame posit that observers consider causality, controllability, and foreseeability when assigning blame to actors. The present study examined which of these factors, either on their own or in interaction, predicted blame assigned to actors in a case of harm caused by negligence. The findings revealed that only causal impact ratings predicted blame. The findings also revealed a novel form of asymmetric discounting: the causal impact of a negligent actor was used to discount blame assigned to an innocent actor, (...) but the causal impact of the innocent actor was not used to discount the blame assigned to the negligent actor. (shrink)

A meaningful distinction can be made between functions and mere effects in biological systems without resorting to teleological arguments: (i) biological systems must cope with a multitude of problems or they will cease to exist; (ii) the solutions to these problems invariably depend on circular causal chains (“feedback loops”); and (iii) biological functions are attributes of elements in biological systems that have an effect which, by contributing to the correcting behavior of a feedback control system, assists in solving a biological (...) problem. The analysis is applied to several biological systems. The proposed solution is discussed primarily in its relation to two popular approaches to the concept of biological function, i.e., the “causal role accounts” and the “selected effect accounts”. (shrink)

Research suggests that international assignment experience enhances awareness of societal stakeholders, influences personal values, and provides rare and valuable resources. Based on these arguments, we hypothesize that CEO international assignment experience will lead to increased corporate social performance (CSP) and will be moderated by the CEO's functional background. Using a sample of 393 CEOs of S&P 500 companies and three independent data sources, we find that CEO international assignment experience is positively related to CSP and is significantly (...) moderated by the CEO's functional background. Specifically, CEOs with international assignment experience and an output functional background (e.g., marketing and sales) are positively associated with greater CSP. (shrink)

During the production process, production companies need to monitor the finished products and ensure their quality, which imposes on them the appointment of inspectors for auditing, and this appointment costs the company amounts that affect the general profit, so it strives to make this cost as low as possible and that the audit process is carried out with high accuracy because in case that the finished products do not conform to the basic specifications of the product, the company is required (...) to pay a fine. In this research, we will formulate the text of the problem appropriately for such a case and then we will build the appropriate mathematical model through which we can obtain the lowest possible cost of inspection, and we will present the study using classical values and neutrosophic values, and we will demonstrate them through an example that shows us the difference between them. (shrink)

This book combines insights from philosophy and linguistics to develop a novel framework for theorizing about linguistic meaning and the role of context in interpretation. A key innovation is to introduce explicit representations of context — assignment variables — in the syntax and semantics of natural language. The proposed theory systematizes a spectrum of “shifting” phenomena in which the context relevant for interpreting certain expressions depends on features of the linguistic environment. Central applications include local and nonlocal contextual dependencies (...) with quantifiers, attitude ascriptions, conditionals, questions, and relativization. The result is an innovative, philosophically informed compositional semantics compatible with the truth-conditional paradigm. (shrink)

We study the extension of public announcement logic PAL by public assignments, which we call PALA. Just as in the case of PAL, the standard procedure for deciding PALA validity, i.e. the use of so-called reduction axioms to translate PALA formulae into formulae in epistemic logic EL, may lead to exponential growth. In this paper, we show that such a price is not mandatory, for we provide a polynomial translation of PALA into EL. This is based on abbreviations of subformulae (...) by new propositional letters. Such optimal translation also enables us to show the computational complexity of the problem of deciding PALA validity, which turns out to be coNP-complete in the single-agent case and PSPACE-complete in the multiagent case. (shrink)

This book provides a multidisciplinary analysis of the potential conflict between a government’s duty to protect children and a parent’ right to raise children in a manner they see fit. Using philosophical, bioethical, and legal analysis, the author engages with key scholars in pediatric decision-making and individual and religious rights theory. Going beyond the parent-child dyad, the author is deeply concerned both with the inteests of the broader society and with the appropriate limits of government interference in the private sphere. (...) The text offers a balance of individual and population interests, maximizing liberty but safeguarding against harm. Bioethics and law professors will therefore be able to use this text for both a foundational overview as well as specific, subject-level analysis. Clinicians such as pediatricians and gynecologists, as well as policy-makers can use this text to achieve balance between these often competing claims. The book is written by a physician with practical and theoretical knowledge of the subject, and deep sympathy for the parental and family perspectives. As such, the book proposes a new way of evaluating parental and state interventions in children's’ healthcare: a refreshing approach and a useful addition to the literature. (shrink)

With the growth of research collaborations, the average number of authors per article and the phenomenon of equally important authorships have increased. The essence of the phenomenon of equally important authorships is the approximately equal importance of authors, both because of the difficulties in comparing authors’ contributions to a paper and some actual research evaluation practices, which give full paper credit only to the most important authors. A mechanism for indicating that various authors contributed equally is required to maintain and (...) strengthen collaboration. However, the phenomenon of multiple important authors can cause unfair comparisons among the research contributions and abilities of authors of different papers. This loophole may be exploited. Normalizing the credit assigned to a given paper’s authors is an easy way to solve this ethical dilemma. This approach enables fair comparisons of the contributions by the authors of different articles and suppresses unethical behaviour in author listings. Bibliometric researchers have proposed mature methods of normalized paper credit assignment that would be easy to use given the current level of computer adoption. (shrink)

Who is responsible for the events and consequences caused by using artificially intelligent tools, and is there a gap between what human agents can be responsible for and what is being done using artificial intelligence? Both questions presuppose that the term ‘responsibility’ is a good tool for analysing the moral issues surrounding artificial intelligence. This article will draw this presupposition into doubt and show how reference to responsibility obscures the complexity of moral situations and moral agency, which can be analysed (...) with a more differentiated toolset of moral terminology. It suggests that the impression of responsibility gaps only occurs if we gloss over the complexity of the moral situation in which artificial intelligent tools are employed and if—counterfactually—we ascribe them some kind of pseudo-agential status. (shrink)

Cooperation between humans and machines is increasingly vital as artificial intelligence (AI) becomes integrated into daily life. Research shows that people are often less willing to cooperate with AI agents than with humans and are more likely to exploit AI for personal gain. While prior studies indicate that human-like features in AI influence cooperation, the impact of AI’s assigned gender remains underexplored. This study investigates how cooperation varies with the gender labels assigned to AI partners. In a Prisoner’s Dilemma game, (...) 402 participants interacted with partners labeled as AI or human, and as male, female, non-binary, or gender-neutral. Participants exploited female-labeled and distrusted male-labeled AI agents more than human counterparts with the same gender labels, reflecting gender biases similar to those in human-human interactions. These findings underscore the importance of accounting for gender bias in AI design, policy, and regulation. (shrink)

One of the significant problems for philosophy’s development into a more diverse discipline is the familiar sharp reduction in the proportion of women and students of color after initial, introductory-level courses. This contributes to a lack in the breadth of perspective and experience that both upper-level students and faculty bring to philosophy, which in turn undermines the strength of the discipline as a whole. Much of the transformation of philosophy must necessarily happen at the departmental, and even university, level; but (...) there are, nonetheless, a number of strategies available to individual teachers of philosophy to help to retain marginalized students—from the composition of course syllabi and assignment choices, to increased awareness of challenges within the discipline to students’ success and embracing error as a learning tool. This variety of pedagogical tools provides a means to help to make philosophy more broadly inclusive. (shrink)

The issue of assigning a patron for a commune/municipality, dis-trict, or province is quite an important matter in local government activity, as indicated by the increased activity of local authorities in this field continuously since the Podkarpackie Province was established in January 1999. Local govern-ment bodies, when taking steps to assign a patron, usually decide to cooperate with the Catholic Church in these matters. The procedure for assigning a patron involves, in addition to local government bodies or church authorities, many (...) dif-ferent types of entities, which clearly shows that the issue of choosing a patron for a unit of local government is seen as an important element in building social ties between the residents of a commune/municipality, district, or province. The coats of arms of numerous units of local and government in the Podkarpackie Province feature the figure of the patron and local authorities pay due attention to the principles of local government heraldry. (shrink)

What is difficult in ethics teaching for general upper secondary students? Can they achieve as good results in metaethics as in normative ethics? These questions should not be addressed without consideration of the various traditions of ethics teaching. Finnish students complete their studies in general upper secondary school by taking the Matriculation Examination. In recent years, a growing number of students has chosen to take an exam in philosophy but there is no systematic study on how students perform in the (...) philosophy exam. This study is focused on those assignments within philosophy that concern ethics. How do students meet the key goals of ethics education defined in the Finnish National Core Curriculum 2015? The material of the study consists of the curriculum, ethics assignments, grading guidelines and the performance statistics in 2017–2021. The main observation is that the average performance is better in assignments in normative ethics than in metaethics, but in neither area of ethics does the average performance surpass half of the maximum points that is considered the threshold for a satisfactory performance. Implications for ethics teaching? We recommend that normative considerations be combined with metaethical considerations when necessary. However, we issue this recommendation having in mind the teaching of ethics in a philosophy classroom. The question for further research is whether the recommendation can also be reasonably applied to the teaching of ethics in other settings. (shrink)

This paper demonstrates that the current policy of a state’s assignment of race to an infant at birth in the United States, when operationalized by a state-backed academic institution or actor, constitutes a Nazi-era doctrine of Sippenhaft. When any state in U.S. government assigns a predefined state-race-category (SRC) to all infants, children, or adult human beings after they are born or arrive to their jurisdiction, and any state or accredited academic institution and/or academic bigot actor constructs, operationalizes, and instrumentalizes (...) (publishes) any content with state-backed authoritative and permanent pejorative-academic-racial-slur such as SRC-supremist, SRC-oppressor, or SRC-racist et al without any possibility of due process in the human being’s lifetime. The Constitutional curiosity is that both the race classification and the state-conviction of racist collapses individual due process thus creating a structural doctrine of illegal Sippenhaft-adjacent state-authored group social defect or state conviction with no legal due process. Thus in direct violation of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments this creates unlimited liability for the state, from the educational institution and state Sippenhaft-adjacent-education academics/scientists. The 1st Amendment protections of the academic or institution is negated, as the academic’s action is not that of a private citizen, but an agent of the state-educational, or state/federal non-profit educational system. One sociology paper is analyzed resulting posterior probability P (H — D) ¿ 0.95 suggests beyond reasonable legal-scientific doubt that the labeling system of Chen et al assigns negative judgment to SRC-431 relative to others with state-backed authority, otherwise known as prime-face racial discrimination of a state-employed academic actor under the color of education. As additional proof, an asymmetry Test via Term Substitution for one historical religious breed caste of the author's ancestry was relaced instead of the assumption that SRC-431 Race code was ”racist by default” and interestingly the first author's race was the racist. (shrink)

In early 2020, there was a faculty development workshop at MacEwan University on how to design philosophy writing assignments with fewer barriers commonly experienced by students with disabilities. This chapter streamlines the workshop and surveys barriers common to philosophy assignment guidelines: length, jargon, single-format, and a “don'ts” section. The authors contextualize these characteristics within the values, norms, and practices of academic philosophy. They present a case study of transforming Rodier's introductory philosophy guidelines before and after a UDL consult with (...) Fidelak. They demonstrate the reasoning behind the transformation, including specific UDL applications and incorporating techniques from academic strategy instruction that address the hidden curriculum. In addition, they outline changes to in-class teaching that support students in completing assignments. (shrink)

Let L be a computable vocabulary, let X_L be the space of L-structures with universe ω and let f:2^\omega \rightarrow X_L be a hyperarithmetic function such that for all x,y \in 2^\omega, if x \equiv _h y then f(x) \cong f(y). One of the following two properties must hold. (1) The Scott rank of f(0) is \omega _1^{CK} + 1. (2) For all x \in 2^\omega, f(x) \cong f(0).

This case study is designed to help students evaluate ethical boundaries in employment contracts and workplace responsibilities. A job description typically outlines an employee’s primary responsibilities, but it cannot account for every possible task. To address this, the “other duties as assigned” clause in employment contracts allows employers to add responsibilities beyond the listed core duties. This clause ensures flexibility in handling unforeseen or necessary tasks that support the organization’s goals even if not explicitly mentioned in the job description. When (...) such tasks arise, employees are expected to perform these “other duties” as part of their role. However, ethical and legal issues may arise when tasks assigned under the “other duties as assigned” clause are excessively burdensome, unrelated to an employee’s primary responsibilities, or inconsistent with the intent—or a violation of the spirit—of the employment contract. These “other duties” may be perceived as exploitative or abusive, potentially resulting in disputes between employers and employees. The case study under discussion explores an instance in which an employer exceeds these boundaries by regularly assigning tasks that deviate significantly from the intended scope of the employees’ roles. This analysis will highlight the potential for misuse of the “other duties as assigned” clause and its broader implications for both parties. (shrink)

Although the podcast has become a major content medium in popular culture, few philosophers have incorporated it as an assignment in the classroom and even fewer have discussed it in the pedagogical literature. We aim to address this lacuna. Drawing on our own experience, we describe the basic design of the podcast assignment, discuss some of its advantages compared to other assignments (especially the traditional essay), and consider how the basic design of the assignment can be adapted (...) to fit the specific needs of your course. (shrink)

We now turn attention to humans-as-they-are and posthumans to consider the ontological differences that may lead to a bifurcation of the species. We point out that a difference exists between things that naturally occur and things invented. Human activities can be mapped onto a tripartite set of categories, the first, which I refer to as Rule I governs natural laws, which apply uniformly to the behavior of matter under the equivalent conditions. Rule II, deals with the creation of the conditions (...) that result in a socially constructed world, and how things work in society according to human intention. Rule III, pertains to matters that govern institutions, usually providing prescriptions involving duties and right. (shrink)

The New Jersey Supreme Court has continually avoided making moral judgments about the value of life and emphasized that such decision making should be the province of the potential parents. Recently, in Acuna v. Turkish, the court elaborated on the limitations of the decision-making right of the potential parents, and its decision demonstrated that New Jersey courts were only willing to require physicians to disclose all relevant medical information, and not moral statements that had not been agreed upon by the (...) state's medical community, people, or legislature. Acuna might be read as a departure from the trend displayed by New Jersey courts in “wrongful birth” and “wrongful life” actions toward empowering potential parents to decide if they want to bring the pregnancy to term. However, the decision actually fits squarely within this trend in that the reluctance to expand the information to which potential parents are entitled from their physicians can be directly tied to the reluctance of the New Jersey Supreme Court to weigh in on the value of life in wrongful birth and wrongful life suits. (shrink)