The right of citizens to privacy in the Republic of Kosovo is guaranteed under the Law on Personal Data Protection. Moreover, this right is guaranteed by the Constitution (Official Gazette, 2008), which is the highest legal act.The purpose of this academic paper goes beyond a superficial assessment of the level of implementation of this fundamental right of the citizen. The core of this paper focuses on highlighting the existing challenges and those that may persist in guaranteeing the privacy of each (...) of us under the reign of the 'Covid 19' Virus in the geographical and psychological space of all citizens of Kosovo.Despite the existence of an independent authority, mandated to oversee the implementation of this right in the public and private sector, its implementation is a permanent mission of this authority, which in our country is the Information and Privacy Agency, but also is subject to challenges, which are not always generated by human negligence.To give the deserved physiognomy to this article, official accessible sources of the sole authority that oversees the implementation of this right in our country have been used. Statistical data presented within the trunk of the paper reinforce the thesis introduced in the introduction of the article, which is confirmed during its full elaboration, reinforcing the view that part of the main challenges for Information and Privacy Agency persists being the limited number of human professional resources, as a guarantee for establishing an unwavering trust among the citizens that their privacy is guaranteed. (shrink)

Voltaire’s classic novel Candide relates the misadventures of a young optimist who leaves his sheltered childhood to find his way in a cruel and irrational world. Fast-paced and full of dark humor, the novel mocks the suggestion that “all is well” and challenges us to create a better world. This Broadview Edition follows the text of a 1759 English translation that was released concurrently with Voltaire's first French edition. Candide is supplemented by Voltaire's most important poetic and humanistic writings on (...) God and evil, the Poem upon the Destruction of Lisbon and We Must Take Sides. The editor's introduction situates the novel in its philosophical and intellectual setting; the appendices include other writings by Voltaire, as well as related writings by Bayle, Leibniz, Pope, Rousseau, and others that place the work in its poetic, philosophical, and humanistic contexts. (shrink)

This article is devoted to determining the source potential of the so-called dissertations collection of the Kyiv Theological Academy in the study of its philosophical heritage. The author draws attention to the distinction of the hierarchy of educational and academic degrees in the Russian Empire the first, candidate’s degree, not being a research degree, from today’s hierarchy. The candidate’s degree at that time was awarded to graduates of higher education institutions on the basis of their academic achievements and a final (...) work, which should be considered analogous to a diploma work, not to dissertations intended for public defense for a PhD degree. The article reveals that the collection of candidate papers from the Manuscript Institute contains important sources for researchers of biographies of the graduates of the Kyiv Theological Academy, its history, and academic heritage. Out of more than two thousand manuscripts stored in the Funds no. 304, the author has for the first time selected and systematized an array of candidate works on philosophical subjects, substantiating their important role in the research of the philosophical heritage of the Kyiv Theological Academy. (shrink)

This essay analyzes a shift in racialized regimes of visual signification in French metropolitan culture during the long eighteenth century. The author explores two symbolically central figures—the dismembered black slave and the black rapist/lover who is “duly punished”—by undertaking an intertextual reading of two sets of illustrations of Voltaire's Candide (1759) designed by Moreau le Jeune. Separated by the French and Haitian Revolutions, Moreau's two sets of Candide illustrations (1787 and 1803) register an important shift in the French cultural imaginary. (...) The figure of the maimed black male slave was put directly in circulation in French visual culture during the eighteenth century. In contrast, interracial sexuality remained “unrepresentable” in French visual culture throughout the century. By the time Haiti declared its independence (1804), this taboo was contravened by Moreau's metaphorical substitution of the figure of the monkey in 1803 to picture the black male as a bestial rapist. (shrink)

Candide is the most famous of Voltaire's 'philosophical tales', in which he combined witty improbabilities with the sanest of good sense. This edition includes four other prose tales - Micromegas, Zadig, The Ingênu, and The White Bull - and a verse tale based on Chaucer's The Wife of Bath's Tale,: What Pleases the Ladies.

This article introduces and presents a concrete and comparative analysis of electoral system of the Republic of Macedonia and the need of incorporation of the open candidate lists in parliamentary and local elections. In this direction, the article notes that the atmosphere in our country is positive, regardless of the fact that open lists would be a challenge for the domination of the leaders of political parties in the nomination process so far, and the evident political party rule of the (...) state in our society as a pathological phenomenon of our political system, because this type of voting lists implies respected professionals, or in other words, individuals who will develop professional team, intellectual and logistic infrastructure for efficient and democratic functioning of the Parliament of the Republic of Macedonia and municipal councils. In this article, the author points out that open candidate lists would contribute to a greater satisfaction of voters, because they offer greater choice and create a closer relationship between citizens and their representatives. In real life, open candidate lists will contribute to greater accountability of MP’s to voters, as well as better understanding of the needs of voters and their interests and will improve the adequate representation of municipalities and City of Skopje on the legislative power, strengthening the geographical link between voters and MP’s. (shrink)

Developing teacher candidates who are able to make moral judgements to equitably resolve classroom dilemmas, conduct student assessment and allocate resources is critical for today's diverse classrooms and should be part of fostering professional disposition. However, one challenge of incorporating dispositions in teacher education and a valid argument for those opposing the trend is how to accurately assess growth in the development of in teacher candidates. This study investigates two measures of moral judgement and explores the congruence between (...) these assessments. Findings indicate inconsistency in the congruence between the quantitative assessment (Defining Issues Test 2) of moral judgement and qualitative data (teacher candidate written assignments), suggesting an inaccurate picture of teacher candidate disposition. Patterns of incongruence are explored and linked to specific phases of moral judgement followed by suggestions for teacher education programs on building congruent assessments. (shrink)

Attacks on ‘closest continuer’ and ‘best candidate’ theories of identity have something correct in them while still failing to discredit the theories they oppose. What follows from Noonan's and Wiggins's objections to such theories is that they need to be so formulated as not to deny the necessity of identity. The best metaphysics for best‐candidate theories to adopt is one in which everyday objects are taken to transcend, in a certain sense, their life histories in given worlds. This metaphysics also (...) has the potential for solving problems about contingent identity, transworld identity, and the issue of haecceitism or individual essence. To develop the metaphysics, it is only necessary to follow through the analogy between worlds and times suggested by writers like Plantinga and Schlesinger. (shrink)

This article examines public displays of reluctance during Roman electoral campaigns. It traces an uncommon but observable trend in which certain individuals claimed not to be canvassing for or desirous of the political office to which they were subsequently elected. Using the election of Scipio Aemilianus to the consulship of 147 BCE as a point of departure, the article argues that staged reluctance was employed as a canvassing strategy by several prominent Roman politicians. Reluctance could be feigned to circumvent electoral (...) restrictions, to enhance the reputation of the candidate, or even as a route to victory through reverse psychology. Staged reluctance was therefore an unconventional but effective republican canvassing technique. The Roman people, for their part, were presented as the primary agents in the election. The people were capable of creating a magistrate, even if the latter had not registered as an official candidate, with apparently spontaneous manifestations of popular will. This article examines how the electorate could come to vote for a non-candidate (part I) and why a non-candidate might claim or feign reluctance (part II). It concludes with an afterword on Augustus’ employment of this republican phenomenon (part III). (shrink)

This note criticizes Andrew Brennan's attempt to defend best‐candidate theories of the identity of artefacts over time against certain now familiar objections. Adoption of a mereological conception of individuals does not, in itself, provide the means for a satisfactory response to objections of Wiggins and Noonan (some of which are anyway ill‐focused). The way forward consists in recognizing that the consequences of best‐candidate theories which have been thought objectionable (in particular, commitment to the extrinsicness of identity) do not violate the (...) necessity of identity and imply ‐ what anyway ought to seem unexceptionable ‐ that a predicate such as ‘constituting the ship which is the Ship of Theseus’ does not denote a genuine property of the hunk of matter of which the predicate is true. Once these consequences have been clearly mapped out, the best‐candidate theorist's commitment to the extrinsicness of identity does not appear absurd. (shrink)

Friedrich Nietzsche is not generally regarded as a “first philosopher”, but rather as a radical critic of the traditional aspiration of philosophy to be a “master science”, in relation to which the other sciences are subordinate or dependent. In this respect, he seems to have had more in common with the logical positivists and post-structuralists who came after him than with the whole galaxy of “first philosophers” who preceded him, from Aristotle and John Duns Scotus to René Descartes, Immanuel Kant (...) and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. However, in a famous aphorism in Beyond good and evil, Nietzsche proposes that psychology ought to be recognised as “queen of the sciences”, a traditional formula for first philosophy. Although this passage is well known, it is more often taken as a rhetorical flourish than as a serious statement of intent. In this article, I focus on the three aphorisms (BGE 20-22) that lead up to this statement. I argue that these aphorisms form an interconnected sequence, in which Nietzsche considers and rejects three traditional candidates for first philosophy — cosmology (BGE 20), theology (BGE 21) and general ontology (BGE 22). By rejecting these traditional candidates for first philosophy one by one, this sequence clears the way for Nietzsche’s proposal in BGE 23 that psychology ought to be recognised as the true candidate for first philosophy. These aphorisms, then, form a crucial sub-section in the developing argument of the book as a whole, which is far more systematically organised than Nietzsche’s aphoristic manner of writing would appear to suggest. (shrink)

David Wootton's scalpel-sharp translation of _Candide_ features a brilliant Introduction, a map of Candide's travels, and a selection of those writings of Voltaire, Leibniz, Pope and Rousseau crucial for fully appreciating this eighteenth-century satiric masterpiece that even today retains its celebrated bite.

Raucous audience applause-cheering, laughter, and even booing by a passionately involved electorate marked the 2016 presidential debates from the start of the primary season. While the presence and intensity of these observable audience responses (OAR) can be expected from partisan primary debates, the amount of not just laughter, but also applause-cheering and booing during the first general election debate between Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump was unprecedented. Such norm-violating audience behavior raises questions concerning not just the presence, strength, and timing (...) of these OAR, but also their influence on those watching on television, streaming video, or listening to radio. This report presents findings from three interconnected studies. Study 1 provides a baseline for analysis by systematically coding the studio audience response in terms of utterance type (laughter, applause-cheering, booing, and mixtures), when and how intensely it occurred, and in response to which candidate. Study 2 uses observational analysis of 362 undergraduate students at a large state university in the southern U.S. who watched the debate on seven different news networks in separate rooms and evaluated the candidates’ performance. Study 2 considered co-occurrence of OAR in the studio audience and in the field study rooms, finding laughter predominated and was more likely to co-occur than other OAR types. When standardized cumulative strength of room OAR was compared, findings suggest co-occurring OAR was stronger than that occurring solely in the field study rooms. Analysis of truncated data allowing for consideration of studio audience OAR intensity found that OAR intensity was not related to OAR type occurring in the field study rooms, but had a small effect on standardized cumulative strength. Study 3 considers the results of a continuous response measure (CRM) dial study in which 34 West Texas community members watched and rated the candidates during the first debate. Findings suggest that applause-cheering significantly influenced liking of the speaking candidate, whereas laughter did not. Further, response to applause-cheering was mediated by party identity, although not for laughter. Conclusions from these studies suggest laughter as being more stereotypic and likely to be mimicked whereas applause-cheering may be more socially contagious. (shrink)

The cognitive penetrability of perceptual experiences has been a long-standing topic of disagreement among philosophers and psychologists. Although the notion of cognitive penetrability itself has also been under dispute, the debate has mainly focused on the cases in which cognitive states allegedly penetrate perceptual experiences. This paper concerns the plausibility of two prominent cases. The first one originates from Susanna Siegel’s claim that perceptual experiences can represent natural kind properties. If this is true, then the concepts we possess change the (...) way things appear to us. The second candidate for cognitive penetration is Fiona Macpherson’s claim that, in addition to concepts, our beliefs can penetrate perceptual experiences. It is argued that neither candidate is a case of cognitive penetration. In doing so, I provide an explanation to both that is based on perceptual learning, a non-cognitive phenomenon where relatively slow and long-lasting modifications to an organism’s perceptual system bring about changes in perception. This explanation is theoretically more plausible and remains closer to the empirical data than the explanations based on cognitive penetration. (shrink)

Vulnerability is frequently conceptualized as a group attribute, with all members of that group automatically receiving additional safeguards, including denial of access. There has, however, been a move to recognize more nuanced, context-driven concepts of vulnerability. In the research setting, this has taken the form of a taxonomy that identifies eight types of vulnerability (cognitive, juridic, deferential, social, medical, situational, allocational, and infrastructural) that can lead a potential research subject to make choices against their own best interests. In the consumer (...) context, vulnerability is conceptualized as a lack of control arising from the interaction of personal states, personal characteristics, and external conditions that hinder marketplace navigation. This study examines both the research and consumer conceptualizations of vulnerability for candidates for uterus transplantation (UTx)—a procedure that is transitioning out of the context of clinical trials, and into a consumer marketplace. It identifies the potential for most types of vulnerability defined in the research taxonomy, as well as the strategies, such as a psychosocial evaluation during the screening process, that can be carried forward from UTx clinical trial protocols to manage these vulnerabilities. Likewise, the consumer-driven model for vulnerability indicates similar risks for UTx as have been identified for in vitro fertilization: specifically, a willingness among women with low chances of success to repeatedly incur physical, financial, and emotional risks in the pursuit of pregnancy, and the need to support a sense of control through managing expectations and validating decisions about appropriate treatment endpoints. (shrink)

IntroductionResearch misconduct and questionable research practices compromise the quality of scientific research. The Netherlands Code of Conduct for Research Integrity 2018 outlines five core principles and 61 standards for good research practices intended to guide researchers and research integrity committees. For the code to function, its 61 standards must be perceived as clear and relevant by those who perform the research practices. These include researchers including PhD candidates, who contribute about 40% of Dutch research full-time equivalents. This study examines (...) how PhD candidates in the Science and Medicine faculties at Leiden University perceive these 61 standards.MethodsA total of 332 PhD candidates (73% participation proportion) evaluated the standards in the Dutch code as part of a mandatory research integrity course at Leiden University and consented to share their responses for research purposes. Each participant rated half of the standards using Likert-type scales for clarity, relevance, frequency, and seriousness of non-adherence. In addition, open-text responses were collected and categorized according to the code’s five core principles.ResultsOverall, 83% of clarity ratings and 77% of relevance ratings scored 4 or 5, indicating a generally positive perception of the standards. However, the perceived frequency of non-adherence varied across standards (5–34%). There were discrepancies in severity assessments, where standards that should represent minor shortcomings were perceived as serious misconduct and the other way around. Open-text responses primarily emphasized honesty and transparency, while independence was rarely mentioned, and participants also highlighted values not explicitly covered by the current code, such as equality and ethical collaboration.DiscussionPhD candidates generally regarded the Dutch Code’s 61 standards as clear and relevant, but their ratings of how serious non-adherence should be considered often diverged from the code’s a priori three-tier severity framework. Several standards labelled as “minor shortcomings”, particularly those related to ethics approvals, authorship, and transparent reporting, were frequently classified as research misconduct, while one plagiarism-related standard (practice 34) was more often seen as a questionable practice. These results suggest the need to refine currently ambiguous formulations and reconsider the a priori severity categories. (shrink)

Intensive research is carried out to develop a disease-modifying drug for Alzheimer’s disease. The development of drug candidates that reduce Aß or tau in the brain seems particularly promising. However, these drugs target people at risk for AD, who must be identified before they have any, or only moderate, symptoms associated with the disease. There are different strategies that may be used to identify these individuals. Each of these strategies raises different ethical challenges. In this paper, we analyse these (...) challenges in relation to the risk stratification for AD necessary for using these drugs. We conclude that the new drugs must generate large health benefits for people at risk of developing AD to justify the ethical costs associated with current risk stratification methods, benefits much larger than current drug candidates have. This conclusion raises a new set of ethical questions that should be further discussed. No data are available. (shrink)

Are our lives meaningless? Is death bad? Would immortality be better? Alternatively, should we hasten our deaths by acts of suicide? Many people are tempted to offer comforting optimistic answers to these big questions. The Human Predicament offers a less sanguine assessment, and defends a substantial, but not unmitigated, pessimism.

The Human Predicament: A Candid Guide to Life's Biggest Questions. By Benatar David.

The meaning of a declarative sentence and that of an interrogative sentence differ in their aspect of mood. A semantics of mood has to account for the differences in meaning between these sentences, and it also has to explain that sentences in different moods may have a common core. The meaning of the declarative mood is to be explained not in terms of actual force (contra Dummett), but in terms of potential force. The meaning of the declarative sentence (including its (...) mood) is called the assertion-candidate, which is explained by what one must know in order to be entitled to utter the declarative with assertive force. Both a cognitive notion (knowledge) and a pragmatic notion (assertive force) are thus part of the explanation of the assertion-candidate. Davidson’s criticism that such a theory is in need of an account of the distinction between standard and non-standard uses of the declarative is answered: without counter-indications an utterance of a declarative sentence is understood as having assertive force. The meaning of an interrogative sentence, the question-candidate, and that of the other sentence types can ultimately be explained in terms of their specific relations to the assertion-candidate. Martin-Löf’s constructive type theory is used to show the philosophical relevance of a semantics of mood. The constructivist notion of proposition needs to be embedded in a theory of the assertion-candidate, which fulfils the offices of being the meaning of the declarative sentence, the content of judgement and assertion and the bearer of epistemic truth. (shrink)

In 1982 Posner and Schmidt surveyed the values of 1400 managers. The survey revealed that honesty was one of the qualities that these managers admired most in themselves. An earlier study by Brennan and Molander indicated that managers believed that honesty in communication was their greatest ethical challenge. If honesty is a prevalent value among managers then why is honesty in communication their greatest ethical challenge? This paper presents an insight into the answer to this question and into the beliefs (...) and norms of behavior that foster either a candid corporate culture or a culture that lacks candor. (shrink)

The article for the first time presents the powerful historical and philosophical potential of the collection of handwritten candidate works of Kyiv Theological Academy (КТА) students, which is kept at Manuscript Institute, V. I. Vernadskyi National Library of Ukraine. According to the analyzed manuscripts, despite the church-confessional and specialized theological orientation of the theological academies, as well as the system of rigid regulations and control by the Most Holy Synod in the subject matters and content of the final works, the (...) students showed a persistent research interest in philosophy. The author identifies more than 150 candidate works of KTA students that are directly relevant to philosophical topics and issues. Most of them are research on the history of Western (from Classical antiquity to the beginning of the 20th century), Eastern and Russian philosophy. At the same time, the handwritten works available in the collection express the interest of students in the problems of epistemology, philosophy of history, social philosophy, axiology, ethics and aesthetics, philosophy of religion, as well as their attraction to complex interdisciplinary studies, combining the issues of philosophy and history of philosophy with theology, psychology, pedagogy and literary studies. (shrink)

Becoming a Candidate: Political Ambition and the Decision to Run for Office explores the factors that drive political ambition at the earliest stages. Using data from a comprehensive survey of thousands of eligible candidates, Jennifer L. Lawless systematically investigates what compels certain citizens to pursue elective positions and others to recoil at the notion. Lawless assesses personal factors, such as race, gender and family dynamics, that affect an eligible candidate's likelihood of considering a run for office. She also focuses (...) on eligible candidates' professional lives and attitudes toward the political system. (shrink)

In Voltaire's work, Candide, a young, naïve man, who has been taught that humans live in the best of all possible worlds, is thrust into the world only to find that this may not be so. He learns over time to balance his optimism with the skepticism he acquires through experience. While today's medical students are not naïve like the character Candide, they, nonetheless, carry an impression of the ideal medical practice, along with the expectation of a successful medical practice. (...) Good mentors and role models are important to students in order to temper their optimism, control their skepticism, and to help them to be realistic, not only about their expectations of medical practice, but what society expects of them. (shrink)

A listener can offer an interpretation of what a speaker is currently saying. I distinguish between, on the one hand, proposing a candidate understanding that solves a manifest problem by offering new, relevant information; and, on the other hand, proposing a candidate understanding that does not seem to relate to any obvious obscurity in what the speaker is saying, and only offers material that the speaker clearly knows, or ought to know. Both kinds are interruptions to the progressivity of the (...) speaker’s project, but they differ qualitatitively. I argue that the former is affiliative and the latter disaffiliative, insofar as the latter calls attention to, and therefore invites correction or abandonment of, what the speaker is doing. I discuss what such a move might serve, and show how making it involves epistemic and deontological rights. (shrink)

This article presents the analysis of the main Spanish political candidates for the elections to be held on April 2019. The analysis focuses on the Facial Expression Analysis (FEA), a technique widely used in neuromarketing research. It allows to identify the micro-expressions that are very brief, involuntary. They are signals of hidden emotions that cannot be controlled voluntarily. The video with the final interventions of every candidate has been post-processed using the classification algorithms given by the iMotions's AFFDEX platform. (...) We have then analyzed these data. Firstly, we have identified and compare the basic emotions showed by each politician. Second, we have associated the basic emotions with specific moments of the candidate's speech, identifying the topics they address and relating them directly to the expressed emotion. Third, we have analyzed whether the differences shown by each candidate in every emotion are statistically significant. In this sense, we have applied the non-parametric chi-squared goodness-of-fit test. We have also considered the ANOVA analysis in order to test whether, on average, there are differences between the candidates. Finally, we have checked if there is consistency between the results provided by different surveys from the main media in Spain regarding the evaluation of the debate and those obtained in our empirical analysis. A predominance of negative emotions has been observed. Some inconsistencies were found between the emotion expressed in the facial expression and the verbal content of the message. Also, evidences got from statistical analysis confirm that the differences observed between the various candidates with respect to the basic emotions, on average, are statistically significant. In this sense, this article provides a methodological contribution to the analysis of the public figures' communication, which could help politicians to improve the effectiveness of their messages identifying and evaluating the intensity of the expressed emotions. (shrink)

Recent research has highlighted the application of moral foundations theory in counseling settings as it can provide a complex framework to understand the concept of morality, moral diversity, values, and decision-making processes. The emergence and development of social justice and multicultural counseling competencies has particularly raised important concerns regarding the application of values in counseling. The present study examined moral foundations as predictors of counseling students’ universality – diversity orientation. Three hundred and fifty-six counseling students at the undergraduate level participated (...) in the research (Mage = 21.86, SD = 2.26, 77.1% female). The results of a series of multiple regression analyses indicated that individualizing foundations were stronger predictors of universality – diversity orientation. Fairness was the only significant predictor of the behavioral aspect of universality – diversity orientation (diversity of contact), while fairness and care robustly predicted the cognitive aspect of universality – diversity orientation (relativistic appreciation). Care, authority, and loyalty significantly predicted the emotional aspect (comfort with differences). Overall, these results suggest that the participating counselor candidates were more likely to rely on individualizing foundations for cultural competence. (shrink)

Voltaire’s _Candide_ describes a number of scenes involving the reification of nameless characters, stories in which their personhood is denied or diminished through slavery or cannibalism. The way these victims fight against reification by others is by remembering their stories and recounting them. According to some definitions, a person is defined by one’s continuous existence through time, which one is aware of through one’s memory, so the old woman’s and the slave’s narrations are what establish their status as subjects rather (...) than objects. Nevertheless, these characters remain in a gray area between individual and type. Their particular experiences suggest that they are indeed individuals, but their lack of names perhaps suggests the extent to which their masters have dehumanized them. Cannibalism is a powerful metaphor for some people’s denial of others’ personhood, or in other words, treatment of persons as things. (shrink)

In the citizen–candidate approach each citizen chooses whether or not to run as candidate. In a single-peaked preference domain, we find that the strategic entry decision of the candidates eliminates one of the most undesirable properties of Plurality rule, namely to elect a poor candidate in three-candidate elections since as we show, the Condorcet winner among the self-declared candidates is always elected. We find that the equilibria with three candidates are basically 2-fold, either there are two right-wing (...) candidates and a left-wing candidate who wins the elections (or its symmetric), or there is a right-wing candidate, a left-wing candidate, and a candidate located in between the two others who becomes winner. We also show that when four or more candidates enter the contest, Plurality rule can elect the Condorcet-loser among the self-declared candidates. (shrink)

Attentional bias has been suggested to contribute to the persistence of substance use behavior. However, the empirical evidence for its proposed role in addiction is inconsistent. This might be due to the inability of commonly used measures to differentiate between attentional engagement and attentional disengagement. Attesting to the importance of differentiating between both components of AB, a recent study using the odd-one-out task showed that substance use was differentially related to engagement and disengagement bias. However, the AB measures derived from (...) the OOOT showed insufficient reliability to be used as a solid measure of individual differences. Therefore, the current study aimed to improve the reliability of the AB measures derived from the OOOT by using more distinct contrast stimuli, adding practice trials, increasing the number of trials, and by having participants perform the task in an alcohol-relevant context. We contrasted the original OOOT with the adapted OOOT and assessed AB in low- and high-drinking individuals. Participants were 245 undergraduate students who typically tend to drink either low or high amounts of alcohol. In one condition, AB was measured with the original OOOT in a typical laboratory context, whereas in the other condition, AB was measured with the OOOT-adapt in a bar context. The OOOT-adapt showed superior internal consistency, especially for the high-drinking group. Further, specifically the OOOT-adapt differentiated between low- and high-drinking participants showing that high drinkers engaged faster with alcohol cues than did low drinkers. Thus, the OOOT-adapt was found to be a promising candidate to reliably index AB in the context of alcohol use. The OOOT-adapt further showed superior criterion validity as it could differentiate between low- and high-drinking individuals, thereby adding to the evidence that AB might be involved in substance use behavior. (shrink)