This article examines Francisco Suárez’s views on consent and the social contract, challenging the interpretation that portrays him as a precursor to modern theorists like Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau. While Suárez’s political thought incorporates elements that may seem similar to contractarian principles, it fundamentally diverges from the modern social contract tradition. Rather than basing political legitimacy on individual consent, Suárez grounds it in the divine origin of power. He sees the community’s consent, expressed through a “virtual pact,” as a necessary (...) condition for transferring power to a sovereign, but not as the foundation of political obligation or authority. For him, the duty to obey laws rests on humanity’s nature and God’s will. The article argues that Suárez rejects key premises of modern social contract theory, notably the ideas that political communities are artificial constructs and that political obligation stems from a contract. (shrink)

The publication of the Critique of Pure Reason by Immanuel Kant marked the beginning of an intellectual revolution not only in Philosophy, but also in other spheres of intellectual activity. Every year interest to this work is only growing up, especially in the context of the development of cognitive sciences and technologies related to the development and implementation of artificial intelligence systems. However, both Kant’s contemporaries and subsequent generations of researchers had questions about the basic concepts, outlined in the first (...) Critique. Nikolay Lossky became one of such outstanding experts in Kant’s philosophy, who carried out a metacritique of transcendental idealism. His analysis is interesting because it is characterized by consistency, depth and inclusiveness, despite the fact that he was not a supporter of Kant’s philosophy. The proposed article explicates the main points of the metacritique of pure reason carried out by Lossky. The aim is to systematize the advantages and disadvantages of transcendental idealism highlighted by him in order to assess the validity of objections and identify points that paradoxically escaped Lossky’s attention. In particular, it is shown that the highest evaluation of Lossky is awarded to Kant’s efforts to create an epistemology that does not rely as presuppositions on any other branches of human knowledge; the resolution of contradictions between Empiricism and Rationalism; the creation of the doctrine of synthetic rationality and transcendental logic; the idea of the need for the immanence of knowledge to consciousness. Lossky identified as the key shortcomings of transcendental idealism a range of contradictions grouped around such concepts as the things in themselves, affection, experience, inner sense, transcendental schema, and unity of apperception. At the same time, it is shown that such a key concept for Kant’s theoretical philosophy as transcendental reflection has disappeared from the Lossky’s field of consideration. The study is preceded by a brief description of Lossky’s characteristics, including personal ones, as a meta-critic of pure reason. (shrink)

The paper studies two-dimensional modal logics with additional connectives (so-called Segerberg squares) and can be regarded as a continuation of Shehtman (Russian Mathematical Surveys, 67(4):721–778, 2012). It gives a new simpler proof of the finite model property of minimal Segerberg squares using bisimulation games. It proves the square finite model property for Segerberg squares of polymodal $$\mathbf{T}$$ T and $$\mathbf{D}$$ D. It also constructs a faithful embedding of Segerberg squares in the equational theory of relation algebras.

This article argues that Suárez advocates for an institutionalist theory of law grounded in a “principle of publicity.” According to this principle, all law, regardless of its nature, derives from a public power—a sovereign authority that is both legislative and executive. For Suárez, no law exists unless it is instituted by a public power through a promulgation procedure. In this framework, the principle of publicity applies universally, encompassing civil, divine, canonical, natural, and international law, each enacted by a sovereign authority (...) within its respective order. The universality of this principle, rooted in the existence of public authorities across all legal systems, underscores its foundational role in Suárez’s theory and establishes publicity as a defining feature of all law. (shrink)

This article focuses on the challenge of determining the relative weight of domestic and global justice demands. This problem concerns a variety of views that differ on the metric, function, scope, grounds and fundamental interpretation of justice norms. I argue that domestic and global economic justice are irreducibly interdependent. In order to address their exact relation, I discuss and compare three theoretical models: (i) the bottom-up-approach, which prioritizes domestic justice; (ii) the top-down-approach, which prioritizes global justice; and (iii) the horizontal (...) framework, according to which both domestic and global principles pose equally stringent demands that are to be implemented horizontally, without attributing a simple priority to one over the other. I argue that the third model represents the best overall framework, although more complex normative criteria need to be elaborated on the basis of this approach, affecting issues such as justice in climate change mitigation and adaption, development cooperation, trade, finance, taxation and immigration. (shrink)

...If, in some places, backward science determines the remaining period by the lack of optimism only by the number 123456789, then our progressive science expands it to 987654321, which is eight times more advanced than theirs. However, due to the inherent caution of scientists, both sides do not specify the measuring unit of reference — year, day, hour or minute are meant. Leonid Leonov. Collected Op. in ten volumes. Volume ten. M.: IHL, 1984, p.583. -/- The modern men being as (...) a rule is proceeding in three relatively autonomous, but immanently coexisting, and each penetrating dialectically through other, and each contesting even cruelly with other, and each more or less dominating on other, differently in various societies, worlds: the first one of the barbarity, the second one the culture, the third one the civilization... Barbarity is the mode of coexistence of autonomous human societies based on the unlimited will to act so as subject wants to do without any limitations of his activities... Culture is the mode of coexistence of autonomous human societies based on the most ancient testaments, customs, traditions etc of the highestly sacrified appearence... Civilisation is the mode of coexistence of autonomous human societies based on the reasoned or legitimated by social contracts, by profits, by expediency and so more constitutions, institutions etc... -/- Andrei Melnikov-Pechersky in his epic "In the Woods" says that there was a movement among the Old Believers in Russia, or a current that proclaimed Kostroma the new and, it seems, the only true Jerusalem, in an apocalyptic sense, of course, which in its spiritual scale was probably not inferior to the Bogomils, shakers, Mormons, or else and the whole Reformation in potential. In Western Europe, every more or less convex nuance of the history of a state or region (even if it is a small San Marino) is overgrown with almost a dozen institutions, not always state ones, by the way, in which almost every sneeze and step of very ambivalent historical subjects in a broad sense is studied. Especially in the young, but very pretentious America of the United States, which embodies all world justice. In our country, for example, even many leading humanitarian specialists do not realize the spiritual value of the Ipatievsky MONASTERY. The Russian writer Boris Shiryaev, who died quite a long time ago and in a very far abroad, devoted a special part of his documentary and artistic epic of wanderings "The Inextinguishable Lampada" to an entertaining and instructive, tragic fate of a kind of village monarchy in some Villages of the Kostroma province (I could not identify the area, and, frankly, I did not really try) in the early years The Soviet government. At the same time, all Russians learn about the French emperor Napoleon almost with their mother's milk how many percent of cyanide potassium was found in his hair, they reflect on Lermontov's "Airship" (probably, just not to "memorize" the imposed "Borodino" by heart). The events, of course, are incomparable, but the fact is significant. The outstanding national artist (if not to say a thinker of the Chesnyakov level) Grigory Pavlovich Kusochkin was glorified wherever, in whatever catalogues he was not included. Paris, London, New York, St. Petersburg, Moscow... To look at some smear of luminaries like Picasso or Modigliani, international tourist routes are organized in the restaurant toilet using the finest marketing technologies, and we did not even know Grigory Pavlovich by sight until, thank God, a series of TV shows on all Russian channels was dedicated to him in one gulp. Why is this happening? Is it a consequence of poverty or the result of the conscious policy of the ruling elite of the country and the world? The regions of the Kostroma Region are Austria, Switzerland, Bavaria, Armenia, Moldova, and Georgia... Georgia! I served in the army there. In this small but very great country, judging even by the appearance of its President Shevardnadze, although it is smaller than the Kostroma region, there are so many different, but Georgian-speaking peoples! Kakhetians, Meskhetians, Imereti, Iveretians, Mingrelians, Khevsurs... Adjarians (mostly Georgian-speaking Muslims) even have their own autonomy. And some peoples are not Georgian—speaking at all — South Ossetians, Abkhazians, Kurds, Armenians, Greeks, even Assyrians. In the Kostroma Region, and in any Russian "province" — not much less: there are plenty of the same Georgians or Armenians everywhere, quite moderate, loyal, and so on. Having, as a rule, their own officially registered associations within the framework of cultural autonomy. Well done! And Israel! He is the only one with all his "illegal" (and I am for the fact that every nation knows better where its ancestral lands are) territories half the size of the Kostroma region. The total number of Jews worldwide, according to the "Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary" in 1987, is about 14 million. Meanwhile, the fate of Israel is being preoccupied (it is very instructive how he achieved this!) all the united nations of the world. In the Kostroma Region and its diaspora, it seems to everyone, and especially to its semi-migrant, Varangian leadership. I don't care if they build a public atomic bomb here in the form of a nuclear power plant or not. Because they do not know the value of this land, the greatness of its spirit. Kostroma is a holy land. I will immediately make a reservation that by Kostroma I mean not only the modern region, but the entire area that has ever historically been associated with Kostroma. The USSR is also a part of the great historical Russia. In this sense, even the entire era of the Russian Romanov Empire is the Kostroma region. Or: many toponymic objects of our native land are called mysteriously beautiful: Sharya, Shunga, Shekshema, Sholezhka, - we need to find out what kind of peoples — and where are they now? — we left such euphonious archetypal combinations, because these are our Kostromsky peoples, these are our Kostroma people. Or, say, the classic of American and world sociology Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin writes in his autobiographical scientific novel "The Long Way" that he studied at the Khrenovskaya (what a strong word!) teachers' seminary of Kostroma province, but in an administrative row for propaganda activities, gendarmes were taken by sledge to the prison of the city of Kineshma - is this not a fact for Kostroma, and primarily for him, local history, although Kineshma has long been attributed to the Ivanovo region, and Pitirim Alexandrovich is buried on the other side of the planet?! I have not the slightest doubt that Kostroma provided spiritual food, gave birth to and nurtured a huge intellectual diaspora with extremely valuable material on a national, global scale. And this is both in direct and indirect order, in the form of a chain reaction. Apparently, it is easy for an intelligent person to grow up in Kostroma, but it is impossible to live, and somewhere on the contrary. Therefore, it is not surprising that the geneticist academician D. K. Belyaev, who was born in the village of Protasov near Nerekhta, very close to Kostroma, glorified Moscow and Siberia with his discoveries and practical results, which immeasurably enriched the Soviet state treasury with foreign exchange income from the sale of the most valuable fur grown according to the biotechnology developed by him in a much shorter time than it usually turns out in nature. And in Kostroma, most likely, few people know who he is and what he is famous for. I will focus in more detail on one of the aspects of his great life. This happened back in the so-called pre-Perestroika times. In a series of his speeches, Dmitry Konstantinovich, based on the results of his and colleagues' research, emphasized, in his opinion, the determining role of the biological factor in shaping the content of human essence, of course, only in a philosophical, conceptual aspect. For some reason, this was opposed by a geneticist, as they say, persecuted at one time by the "senile" in selectionism (including human nature) by the Michurino-Lysenkoists, academician N. P. Dubinin, which personally remains incomprehensible to me until now. With a grateful curtsey to Academician Dubinin and his point of view, the famous French humanist, member of the Politburo of the French Communist Party Lucien Sav appeared on the pages of the Communist magazine. The material was clearly titled: "Problems are not only scientific, but also political." He very indecently attributed the views of academician Belyaev to "a reactionary ideology that tries to put genetics at its service, and more broadly, biology, in order to present all kinds of social inequalities of all kinds as inherent in nature itself"(1). I would like to see any ideology that does not try to "put this or that at its service," much less something worthwhile... A little later, the editorial of the Communist hit the "biologizers", and soon Dmitry Konstantinovich was gone. In short, it is only on the example of our fellow countrymen that you can write interesting, world-class essays on science and its history, but instead our scientists should fit their global potencies into a page and a half (good yet. if not entirely at their own expense), and then for at least three years to guess whether they will be published or not. Now it no longer surprises me how at one time, when, after reading the listener card I filled out, the sweetest girl from the IPKPON office at USU congratulated me for something. It turned out that the dean of the Faculty of Philosophy of USU, doctor, professor, Honored Scientist, and now academician Konstantin Niko-laevich Lyubutin is a countryman, Kostromsky, or rather Manturovsky by origin, as I write below in the notes — we are Kostromendors. To him, my fellow citizen in the most subtle micropatriotic dimensions, I owe a lot in my professional and social development, even in survival. Because that's how it often turns out: you can be born here, sometimes you can live here... It's very hard. Maybe the Kostroma origin of an outstanding Russian historian of philosophy, organizer of science and education, educator and friend of a galaxy of people devoted to the Motherland and the cause is not a great milestone in the history of the region, but name me at least a dozen Russian cities on the scale of Kostroma, from where such intellectual ones would come out into the world and light luminaries like ours. No matter who you take from the world significance of the pillars of national (and world, and foreign, - even the great Rabbi of Lubavitcher spent three years in exile in a Campfire, — I learned from some foreign voices) history, literature, culture in general, technology, science and so on - you will always find someone, which is very directly related to Kostroma. Pushkin, Lermontov, Gorky. Alexander Nikolaevich Ostrovsky, Pisarev, Uspensky, Katenin, Florensky, Savrasov, Kustodiev, Dyagilev, Mikhalkov, Alexander Alexandrovich Zinoviev; writers, artists, entrepreneurs, revolutionaries, inventors, politicians... In some world-famous for its classic Russian provincialism, Kologriv has been storing, figuratively speaking, unique sketches, if not of Leo-Nardo da Vinci himself, then certainly of his school, almost since the seventeenth century. And not only that. Nevertheless, the well-known Chukhloma to the Fatherland, in addition to thinkers of the rank of Rozanov and Zinoviev (where should domestic philosophers mature and not be born, if not in Chukhloma, Manturov or Khrenknowswhere?), gave an actor of amazing, national, originality — Mikhail Pugovkin, who can not be confused with anyone, a role that no one will repeat. (shrink)

Self-enhancing statements can provide useful information. Why do we resent those who make them? We suggest that the resentment comes from a broader claim of superiority that self-enhancing statements can imply. In three experiments, we compared one condition, designed such that the self-enhancing claim would be perceived as a claim of superiority, to three conditions providing different contextual reasons for why the self-enhancing claim might not be a claim of superiority. In those conditions the self-enhancing claim is either called for, (...) addressed to someone who performs better than the self-enhancer, or addressed to someone who doesn’t compete in the domain mentioned of the self-enhancing claim. The results show that participants disliked the self-enhancer more and were more likely to deem the self-enhancing claim to be a brag when the self-enhancing claim was manipulated to be a claim of superiority. (shrink)

The COVID-19 crisis has not only ontological roots but also epistemic ones too; its cause lies in the main evolutionary trends in the development of science as a social institution. And only then the epistemic factors were transformed into existential-ontological ones, connected with the very existence of civilization and our biosocial nature. The way out of the crisis is the unalterable development of all sectors of technologies of controlled evolution. As a result, biopolitics extends the sphere of competence to interstate (...) and interethnic relations, becomes transbiopolitics, ie a global geopolitical factor responsible for the preservation of humanity and its self-identity. The coronavirus pandemic, like other manifestations of the civilization crisis, is politically generated by globalization. The same consequences of globalization contribute to the fragmentation of the geopolitical space and the inhibition of the actual globalization process. the pandemic scale of the crisis immediately brought biopolitics to the level of a systemic factor in interstate relations in both formal and substantive aspects. (shrink)

In this article, I set out Suárez's conception of the demon's obstinacy. For Suárez, the demons’ obstinacy is a divine punishment. It is the result of the free and awful choice to turn away from God that the demons have decided to make, the main consequence of which is the loss of the freedom to will and to do the good. Taking up Aquinas’s conception, Suárez considers that the demonic nature is irredeemably corrupt and obstinate in evil. Demons are provided (...) only with a miserable freedom, consisting of the possibility to choose between different evils. Perpetually sinful and eternally constrained to remain so, they are condemned to wretchedness, to complacency in evil, and to the unremitting torments of hell. (shrink)

This article analyses what it means for the attribution of responsibility to adopt a structural perspective on macro-social phenomena. To this end, a specific form of responsibility, namely ‘structural responsibility’, is distinguished from and placed in relation to personal and interpersonal moral responsibility. It is argued that only with the attribution of structural responsibility can we appropriately take account of macro-social problems including those that are predominant in international relations. Using the example of climate responsibility, the article explains in a (...) final step what happens when structural responsibility is overlooked, trivialised or even negated. (shrink)

Problem Statement. In modern conditions the reconstruction of self-developing socio-technological- ecological systems, which include man as its element, is actualized. The result of such a construction will be the management of the value of technogenic risk in its biological, social and civilizational forms. And the obvious consequence will be the transition of the development of biopolitical problems to a new, no longer international, but global-evolutionary level. The theory and practice of such a reconstruction can be designated by the category of (...) “Transbiolitics,” which implies the political institutionalization of “ecological re整ection. The article is a logical continuation of our previous publication devoted to the analysis of the transformation of the political process into the main factor of global evolution and the biopolitical transformation of the geopolitical landscape. The purpose of this paper is to create a general sketch of the con散guration of the main trends of the coevolutionary interaction of biological, sociocultural and techno-rationalist modules of the stable evolutionary strategy of the technogenic civilization in the space of bio- and geopolitical connotations of international relations. Based on a combination of methods of conceptual, discursive and political-anthropological analysis (in the context of transbiolitical paradigm) the content of the category “Transbiolitical Chronotope” is revealed: a geopolitically di䍕erentiated set of socio-cultural vectors of modern civilization evolution. In other words, the trans-biopolitical chronotope determines the direction of inclusive technological transformation of both cultural and ecological niche and the biosocial nature of man. The general conclusion/prognosis can be reduced to two theses. Firstly, transbiolitics, formed in a di䍕erentiated cultural-civilizational context, is currently being integrated into the general political process, partially replacing and partially intertwining with geopolitical doctrines in the sphere of international relations. Secondly, the growing con整ict of technological civilization with the cultural and ecological niche constructed by it through the turbulence of the geopolitical sphere of social life can bring the level of technological and civilizational risk to the existential boundary. (shrink)

The coronavirus pandemic, like its predecessors - AIDS, Ebola, etc., is evidence of the evolutionary instability of the socio-cultural and ecological niche created by mankind, as the main factor in the evolutionary success of our biological species and the civilization created by it. At least, this applies to the modern global civilization, which is called technogenic or technological, although it exists in several varieties. As we hope to show, the current crisis has less ontological as well as epistemological roots; its (...) reason lies in the main evolutionary trends in the development of science as a social institution. It was only later that epistemological factors were transformed into existential-ontological factors associated with the asymmetry of the existence of civilization and our biosocial nature. The perception or ignorance of a risk factor as a real fact is determined by the presence or absence of knowledge about it. In other words, risk is the result of the integration of the corresponding ontological concept into the general categorical structure. The plurality of such structures is a hallmark of multidisciplinary ontologies, each of which is associated with its own factual continuum. The aim of this study was to conceptually model for support relativistic parameter of evolutionary efficiency of stable evolutionary human strategy (SESH) in its techno-rationalistic module. The meaning of this term is equivalent to the category of scientific and technological development. (shrink)

The relevance of the research is determined by the need to find solid foundations rooted in Russian intellectual culture for organizing a system of legal education that would meet the internal needs of Russians. To this end, the key provisions of Leon Petrażycki’s Legal Policy (Civilpolitik) are evaluated by methods of a critical interpretation of sources and comparative analysis. Petrażycki is the founder of Russian legal realism, a striking phenomenon of world legal thought in the late 19th and first half (...) of the 20th centuries, which had a significant impact on the philosophy and sociology of law in Europe and the United States. In particular, it is showed that for Petrażycki’s Legal Policy legal education is not only a tool for ensuring the stability of society and the connectivity of individuals within a social group and between different social groups, but also represents an objective process of legal norms’ impact on the collective and individual psyche, which results in legal reality. It models how the Legal Policy axioms of love and moral progress, as well as the methods of legal deduction and induction can be applied for improvement of legal education today. At the same time, the shortcomings of Legal Policy are revealed and ways of correcting them are proposed by referring to the ideas of followers of Petrażycki - Pitirim Sorokin and Boris Vysheslavtsev. Thus, it is shown that Petrażycki’s legal pedagogy, which does not take into account the significant motivational impact of unconscious psyche contents on the behavior of individuals and the masses, can be supplemented by Vysheslavtsev’s Psychagogy, which considers these factors. In addition, it substantiates why Psychagogy has a good heuristic potential for solving the main task of Legal Policy - the improving current legislation. It is demonstrated that the methods of empirical verification of the effectiveness of legal education proposed by Petrażycki, which have desperately found their way into the practice of law enforcement monitoring in the Russian Federation, can be specified and supplemented by applying the six criteria of the moral and legal thermometer proposed by Sorokin. (shrink)

There are some arguments supporting the pessimistic meta-induction, coming from the direction of quantum theory (A. Kukla and J. Walmsley), from the direction of Laudan’s list with successful but false theories, and from the specific direction of the phlogiston theory (whom Kukla Walmsley, and S. Psillos consider to be false). Against these arguments we believe we can successfully oppose, in the first case the interactive quantum realism of I. Niiniluoto, in the second case the realism of the theoretical theoretical constituents (...) responsible for the empirical success of the theories of S. Psillos, and in the third case the analysis of the phlogiston theory done by V. Verronen, R. Vihalemm and E. McMullin (who suggested that this theory was simultaneously insufficiently mature and approximately true). Our conclusion does not necessary prove that the perspective of the scientific realism is true, but rather that the pessimistic meta-induction attack against it proves to be unconvincing. (shrink)

Topicality of the research topic. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is an increase in the instability of the structure of ecosocial systems. Technological innovations have led to a sharp deterioration in natural social ecodynamics. The aim of the research is the conceptual modeling of the proliferation of biopolitics from the social sphere to the field of international relations with the subsequent transformation into a systemic factor of the global evolutionary process. Research methods and results. The model is (...) based on our previously proposed concept of a three-module stable evolutionary strategy of technogenic civilization. In relation to the triple spiral of anthropo-socio-technogenesis, i.e., the historical development of the cultural-ecological niche of Homo sapiens, constructed by him, this means the following. Periods of stable progressive growth of evolutionary and civilizational success are replaced by periods of various scales crisis, up to civilizational or even biological-evolutionary singularity. During the crisis, the importance of the political factor increases sharply, and over the past 50 years, this primarily relates to the field of biopolitics. The regional differentiation of the biopolitical sphere reconstruction during the fight against the pandemic will inevitably complicate international relations not only between regions that belong to different cultural and civilizational types. Probably less so, the same problems will affect the reconciliation of differences caused by geopolitical, interethnic, religious and even economic (competition) reasons. The first phase of the adaptive civilizational response is to reduce the degree of connection between the individual socio-cultural elements of modern civilization, i.e., slowing down the globalization process and intensifying interregional conflicts of various contents. In particular, such contradictions will be most acute in the post-Soviet geopolitical space, where the conditions of the civilizational rift are imposed on the conflicts of the transition period. Due to the specifics of modern high technologies, the process will enter the phase of global socio-techno-ecological self-developing systems reconstruction, which includes man as its element. And the obvious conclusion will be the transition of the development of biopolitical issues to a new, no longer international, but global-evolutionary level. In our understanding, transbiopolitics is a political issue related to the rationalization of the global evolutionary process. The latter will become a bearing element of the global process of evolution of the noosphere with the subsequent complication and increase of cohesion between separate sociocultural types which are a part of system of the modern globalizing civilization. (shrink)

Applied technological developments are represented by (1) genetic engineering as management tools of biological evolution and (2) socio-economic engineering as management tools of civilizational and socio-cultural development. This binary structure logically follows from the postulated three-module organization of the sustainable evolutionary strategy of the sentient human being. Naturphilosophy once again acquires the status of the basis of the theory of evolution in an explicit way. There is a system of metaphysical postulates and ontological categories derived from the anthropic principle of (...) participation. For modern neoliberal political democracy, bio-power and biopolitics look like the most effective technology for stabilizing the scenarios and trends of the global evolutionary process that are optimal within this ideological system. Conclusions.Transbipolitics in our understanding is a political problematic related to the rationalization of the global evolutionary process. In the coming decades transbipolitics will become the carrier element of the global process of evolution of the noosphere with the consequent complication and increase of cohesion between the individual socio-cultural types that are part of the system of modern globalizing civilization. (shrink)

Immanuel Kant’s image and ideas have long been part of Russian Internet culture. At the same time, attempts to modernize Kant face both objective and subjective difficulties. These difficulties lead to the emergence, dissemination, and reproduction of inaccurate information about the philosopher. Among objective factors, I refer to the existence of gaps in the study of Kant’s biography, the scarcity of iconography, and the complexity of the language of his writings. Subjective factors include the incompetence of the creators and distributors (...) of thematic content, weak skills of information hygiene, poor knowledge of the laws of information dissemination on the Internet, and excessive trust in large language models. To demonstrate the validity of this statement, I undertook a case study using content-analysis methods. The subject of the study is the reflection of Kant’s image and ideas in the Russian segment of the Internet in 2024. I also gave examples of the most common groups of content and the mistakes associated with these four common groups: biography and iconography, philosophy through the prism of aphorisms, humor, and naming. In addition, I considered individual cases that characterize the peculiarities of users’ perception of content related to Kant. These examples merely illustrate some general tendencies in the representation of Kant’s image and ideas on the internet. In turn, in the Discussion section, I discuss those fundamental problems, a particular manifestation of which was the distortion of perception of Kant’s image and ideas on the internet. Among these problems are the cultural crisis, the loss of the ability to turn to transcendental reflection, Internet infantilism, and others. Finally, I draw a conclusion about what to do with the negative tendencies I have highlighted in this article. (shrink)

Using iterated Sacks forcing and topological games, we prove that the existence of a totally imperfect Menger set in the Cantor cube with cardinality continuum is independent from ZFC. We also analyze the structure of Hurewicz and consonant subsets of the Cantor cube in the Sacks model.

The Culpable Control Model assumes that causal judgments are irrational: a negative evaluative reaction to an agent would lead individuals to overestimate his causal contribution to a harm. However, the extent to which these judgments deviate from criteria of rationality remains unclear. The two present studies aimed at investigating conditions under which this effect occurs. Participants red a vignette in which the evaluative reaction was operationalized through the agent’s motives (blameworthy, laudable). We also varied the causal link between the agent’s (...) action and the outcome (strong, weak, preempted). In both studies, we found that negative motives influenced causal judgments when a strong action-outcome link could be established. In Study 2, we replicated the effect of motives on causal judgment in the weak link condition. However, participants consistently judged the agent as less causal when the link was weak (vs. strong), regardless of the agent’s motives. These findings show that both the presence and the strength of the actual causal link between the action and the outcome moderate the detrimental effect of negative evaluative reactions on causal judgments. Thus, common sense causal judgments seem to deviate relatively little from the criteria of rationality. (shrink)

Although Merleau-Ponty suspended the initial project of The Prose of the World, the chapter devoted to style has proven to be of great significance since Merleau-Ponty published it twice, in 1952 and 1960. This makes it a possible introduction to his conception of style, that needs clarification. We show that, following the instance of a painter’s own style, Merleau-Ponty calls style every creator’s own identity, and that, as such, this identity is a mode of being-in-the-world, an identity that entirely lies (...) outside, which the creator can only grasp by conquering and recognising it in the world, through his creations. Merleau-Ponty then accounts for it, thanks to Malraux, by defining style as a primordial expression, a speaking language, that makes use of my experience to institute a common meaning, available for me as well as others: style is the conquest of universality within and through partiality, beyond the abstract opposition of subjectivity and objectivity. (shrink)

Understanding how learners regulate their emotions and engage in metacognitive strategies is crucial for fostering self-regulated learning, particularly in technology-mediated learning. This study examines the temporal relationships between two emotion regulation (ER) strategies, reappraisal and suppression, frustration, and use of progress monitoring as metacognitive strategy, within the context of an educational game on financial literacy. The study involved 82 undergraduate students whose levels of frustration, progress monitoring behaviour, ER strategies were assessed at various points during the learning task. Findings revealed (...) that the use of both reappraisal and suppression decreased during the learning task. Additionally, both ER strategies were negatively associated with frustration, although the relationship between reappraisal and frustration diminished over time. Frustration was negatively related to progress monitoring, indicating that effective emotion regulation can help maintain engagement in metacognitive strategies by keeping cognitive resources available. Notably, suppression and progress monitoring showed a positive relation that increased over time, highlighting the potential usefulness of suppression in extended learning tasks, despite its generally lower effectiveness compared to reappraisal. The results highlight the importance of considering temporal dynamics in the application of ER strategies during extended learning. Practical implications for the design of technology-mediated learning environments and educational interventions are proposed. (shrink)

This paper is an overview of some recent and ongoing developments of formal logical systems designed for reasoning about systems of rational agents who act in pursuit of their individual and collective goals, explicitly specified in the language as arguments of the strategic operators, in a socially interactive context of collective objectives and attitudes which guide and constrain the agents’ behavior.

In his Elements of the Philosophy of Right Hegel points out that the reference to an abstract ethical rule like the categorical imperative is not enough to establish consistent interpersonal actions. In his Philosophical Investigations Wittgenstein points out that a mere rule cannot be the cause of regular actions. But Hegel and Wittgenstein do not only share similar and therefore comparable concerns in connecting rules and acts. They also share similar solutions how to provide this connection. This similarity will be (...) shown by comparing simple interpretations of Hegel’s critique of Kant’s categorical imperative and Wittgenstein’s critique of rule-following. The comparison will proceed in two stages. In the first stage, it will be shown that both philosophers share the opinion that general rules, in the form of theoretical propositions, can be related to an unlimited range of actions and that individual actions can be related to an unlimited range of rules. Both believe that this problem cannot be solved by bringing in more theoretical propositions that interpret the original rule. So rule and act are left disconnected and the whole concept of rule-following is challenged, which both philosophers regard as a problem. The second stage of the comparison focuses on the suggestion that the solutions both philosophers provide can be situated within the same framework. The thought that rule and act can ever be adequately understood apart from each other is rejected. Instead, some kind of internal relation, if not identity, has to be assumed. This relation that binds rule and act together is ultimately located within some kind of social institution. For Hegel the necessary institutional context is the Sitte or Sittlichkeit (ethical life), while for Wittgenstein it is customs, uses, institutions or forms of life. (shrink)

In this essay will be firstly offered various reasons for advocating a classical approach to Kierkegaard’s authorship, according to which this “is religious from first to last”. In this sense one should consider his purported stages of existence as being ranked. Secondly it will be argued for the rationality of the transition between these competing interpretations of existence. A challenge (offered by Alasdair MacIntyre) against this classical view on transition will be firstly presented – according to whom we should understand (...) Kierkegaard’s intention (from Either-Or) as that of presenting the reader with an ultimate choice between an aesthetical and an ethical stage of existence: in this respect the Danish thinker did not commend one option over the other. It will then be shown Marilyn Piety’s and Gordon Marino’s replies to this assertion: for Piety the aforementioned “ultimate choice” interpretation is possible only when a person has a dispassionate stance toward her existence; however, she offers evidence that for the Dane in reality “passion” permeates one’s reason in such cases. For Marino, Kierkegaard’s rationality of transition is in similar terms understood to those of the “theory choice” model of scientific rationality. MacIntyre’s response to these rebuttals will also be shown: in his view, although some passions are for the Dane essential in transition, the ones suggested by both authors are not continuous between the stages. Against this idea Stephen Evans’ reply will be imported, which states that there are – according to Kierkegaard – some ethical leanings which are present even in the aesthetic stage and that the ethicist’s problem is not firstly one of ignorance, but rather one of the unwillingness to commit himself to what he already knows. Moreover, Evans argues that Kierkegaard can be considered an externalist epistemologist, for whom knowledge is a matter of being rightly related to the external world; for the Dane our ability for so relating partly depends on the qualities we possess as human beings. It will finally be argued that such a view is similar to that proposed by Michael Polanyi in his philosophy of science. (shrink)

Si conservano 2.103 lettere di direzione spirituale di Francesco di Sales: sono conversazioni intime che rivelano la sua conoscenza della persona umana e dei suoi dinamismi, ma anche la sua cultura teologica e spirituale. Da questi documenti, emergono le caratteristiche salienti della sua direzione, come, ad esempio, il rispetto della libertà individuale, l’insistenza sull’accoglienza delle mozioni dello Spirito, la sensibilità pastorale, la preoccupazione del discernimento, l’unione dei cuori e l’affezione reciproca tra direttore e diretto a partire dal comune desiderio di (...) perfezione cristiana. Un particolare valore è attribuito all’esame di coscienza, come strumento di conoscenza di sé. Si insiste però sulla necessità di amare la propria “abiezione”, cioè di accettare con umiltà la verità di se stessi, i propri limiti e difetti, per poi sforzarsi di superarli con dolcezza e pazienza. Nell’Introduzione alla vita devota ci è presentato un programma organico di vita spirituale, che riprende, approfondisce e armonizza i suggerimenti offerti nelle lettere di direzione. Qui l’insistenza è posta in particolare sull’unione amorosa con Dio e sulla cura delle piccole virtù: quelle della vita quotidiana, che si alimentano ai piedi della Croce: l’umiltà, la dolcezza e la semplicità. Emerge soprattutto una visione della vita spirituale tutta incentrata sul primato dell’amore di Dio. (shrink)

The article compares views of C.G. Jung and N.O. Lossky on the nature of time, including in the context of contemporary to them physical theories - quantum mechanics by W. Pauli and relativistic physics by A. Einstein. In particular, the author points to the similarity of ideas of both thinkers that the psyche relativizes time not only subjectively, but also objectively. Jung and Lossky provide this statement with a similar empirical basis, for example, the researches of T. Flournoy, as well (...) as similar theoretical arguments by postulating a fundamental acausal principle of the connection of all things, which is better suited for describing psychic and some physical phenomena than the classical causal explanation. In analytical psychology, such a principle is synchronicity, in hierarchical personalism - gnoseological coordination. Both concepts are genetically related to the G.W. Leibniz idea of pre-established harmony, which was reinterpreted by Jung and Lossky through different worldview foundations. Jung in his reasoning relied on the transcendental idealism of I. Kant, the principle of complementarity and the discoveries of quantum mechanics, Lossky - on intuitivism, the principle of subordination and on his own interpretation of Einsteins theories. Jung comes to the conclusion that the psyche has a timeless character, and Lossky comes to the conclusion that it has a super-temporal character. Jungs timelessness indicates the transcendental nature of psyche and the strive to get away from the classical causal explanation, saving it according to the principle of complementarity only to consider the phenomenal side of being and mainly physical processes. One of the pioneers of quantum mechanics Pauli was of the same opinion in general. Because of there is nothing transcendent in hierarchical personalism, Losskys super-temporality is of a strive to find a deeper basis for occurring in time processes, and, according to the principle of subordination, to include time in the hierarchical structure of the universe, prescribing for it a role of one of the two key forms of psychic and psycho-material processes characteristic of a certain stage of being. (shrink)

This article endeavors to interpret the work of Jean-Luc Nancy through the idea of “anastasis”. Each time, something rises from the dead: meaning emerges from significance, the world from the unworldly aspects of globalization, Christianity from the decline of religion, the body from its Western devaluation in favor of the spirit, and community from the failure of state-controlled communism and rampant individualism. Could it be that life, in a unique manner across all those phenomena, arises from death and sustains itself (...) within it? (shrink)

The author attempts to answer a question of whether the fact that Immanuel Kant’s theory of experience most likely has a conceptual nature decreases an importance of Kant’s ideas for contemporary philosophy, because if experience is conceptual by nature, then certain problems with the search for means to verify experiential knowledge arise. In particular, two approaches are proposed. According to the first approach, the exceptional conceptuality of Kant’s theory of experience may be a consequence of absence of some important chains (...) in arguments contained in the Critique of Pure Reason, which could clarify a question of how the conceptual apparatus of the subject corresponds to the reality. The author puts a hypothesis that the missing chains are not a mistake, but Kant’s deliberate silence caused by the lack of accurate scientific information that could not have been available to humankind in Enlightenment epoch. According to the second approach even if Kant’s theory of experience is exclusively conceptual by nature, this cannot automatically lead to a conclusion that it is unsuitable for obtaining reliable knowledge about reality, since transcendental idealism has powerful internal tools for verifying data in the process of cognition. The central position among them is occupied by transcendental reflection. (shrink)

L’oeuvre d’Adam Smith a pour objectif d’analyser l’aspect institutionnel des phénomènes sociaux. D’un côté, la Théorie des sentiments moraux trouve sa juste place dans la pensée de l’économiste écossais ; son rôle est d’expliquer comment se forment les jugements moraux individuels et comment ces jugements débouchent de façon évolutionniste sur l’émergence d’ institutions sociales.De l’autre côté, la véritable cause de la Richesse des nations est à chercher dans des institutions qui font respecter la liberté naturelle des individus. Une relecture du (...) troisième devoir du souverain aboutit également à des conclusions fort intéressantes: la mise en place de nouvels arrangements institutionnels (droits de propriété, société par actions à responsabilité limitée) dans la production des ouvrages “publick” devaient permettre l’extension du marché (le système des prix retrouvant pleinement son rôlecoordinateur) et non son remplacement par l’Etat.The aim of the Adam Smith’s work is to analyze the institutional aspect of the social phenomena. On the one hand, the Theory of Moral Sentiments finds its right place in the thought of the scottish economist; its role is to explain how form the individual moral judgements and how the social institutions emerge out of these judgements in an evolutionist way.On the other hand, the real cause of the Wealth of Nations is to be found in the institutions which enforce the respect of the natural liberty of the individuals. A re-reading of the thirth duty of the sovereign turns out a much interesting conclusions: the carrying out of new institutional arrangements (rights of property, joint-stock companies with limited liability) in the production of “publick” works had to allow the extension of the market (the price system recovering its all coordinating role) and not its replacement by the State. (shrink)

Der Befund, dass die Frage nach der schieren Möglichkeit der Vermittlung als Kernthema gerade auch bei den pädagogischen Schlüsseltexten zu finden ist, zieht sich wie gezeigt fortlaufend durch die Epochen – ein interessanter Befund auch aus systemtheoretischer Warte, da nach Jochen Kade (1997) der Code vermittelbar/nicht-vermittelbar die Grenze des Erziehungssystems reflektiert. Die Variationen von ‚Vermitteln‘ belegen dabei eindrucksvoll, dass das Implizite in der Pädagogik schon immer breit reflektiert und dass Unaussprechliches meist als unbedingt vermittlungsnotwendig angesehen wurde. Ich möchte so weit (...) gehen und von einem Diskurs über die Unlehrbarkeit sprechen – Unlehrbarkeit nicht als praktisches, sondern prinzipielles Problem; nicht als empirischer Befund, sondern als Grundbedingung pädagogischen Tuns. (shrink)

Wie sieht nun ein Vermittlungsbegriff auf der Basis der Erkenntnisse Wittgensteins, Polanyis und Bourdieus aus? Doch ist zunächst notwendig, innezuhalten und den Anspruch eines systematischen Vorhabens vor dem Hintergrund des gewählten Theoriekorpus zu reflektieren. Wittgenstein fordert den Leser am Schluss des Tractatus auf, er müsse „die Leiter wegwerfen, nachdem er auf ihr hinaufgestiegen ist“ (Wittgenstein 1989: § 6.54) – das ist auch hier vonnöten. Es gilt, bei der Begriffsbestimmung des Vermittelns die Wittgenstein’sche „Abrichtung“ (Wittgenstein 1971: § 6) durch hinweisende Definitionen (...) zu vermeiden. Wittgenstein verwirft insbesondere die Vorstellung, eine Bedeutung könne eigentlicher oder „direkter als die andere“ (ders. 1989: 258) sein – die Bedeutung eines Begriffs sei schlichtweg eine Frage der Gewöhnung. (shrink)

Wer im Frühjahr 2016 bei Google die drei Stichworte ‚Flüchtlingen‘, ‚Werte‘ und ‚vermitteln‘ eingibt, erhält 210.000 Treffer. Beim zweiten Ergebnis fordert etwa der Mannheimer Oberbürgermeister: „Wir wollen und müssen den Flüchtlingen unsere Werte vermitteln und Orientierung geben“. Treffer fünf handelt von einem bayrischen „Rechtsbildungsunterricht für Flüchtlinge und Asylbewerber“: Dort will man „Werte der deutschen Rechtsordnung vermitteln“. Der sechste Treffer tappt noch einmal besonders schön in die Falle, die hier aufgespannt werden soll. Titel: „Frühzeitiges Vermitteln von Werten an Flüchtlinge“. Untertitel: „So (...) werden Kulturkonflikte im Erstaufnahmelager in Siegen verhindert“. (shrink)

Lehren im herkömmlichen Sinne setzt die Erklärbarkeit dessen, was gelehrt werden soll, voraus. Nimmt man hingegen an, dass der Mensch stets mehr weiß, als er sagen kann, kommt man in Widerspruch zu dieser Annahme: Wie soll man etwas sagend vermitteln, das man vielleicht vorführen, aber nicht umfassend in Worte fassen kann? Man denkt sich die Erziehung zuerst mahnend, bittend, ratend – kurz: sagend, vergisst aber leicht, dass man nicht zuletzt durch sein Tun erzieht. ‚Implizite‘ Vermittlung stellt sich insofern zunächst als (...) Gegenteil von ‚expliziter‘ dar: Etwas ist gemeint, aber nicht gesagt, und mehr noch: nicht ohne Weiteres angebbar, aber doch gewiss. (shrink)

Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002) wird in der deutschsprachigen Erziehungswissenschaft als Klassiker rezipiert (vgl. etwa Dollinger 2012). Drei Themenkomplexe dürften dazu beigetragen haben: an erster Stelle das einer Sozialisationstheorie gleichende Habituskonzept, dann seine Theorie der Reproduktion sozialer Ungleichheit durch das Bildungswesen sowie schließlich zahlreiche Forschungsprojekte, die immer wieder Pädagogen und ihre (mögliche) Klientel in den Blick nehmen (Kalthoff 1997: 11 ff. oder 2011: 110 f. bieten hierfür einen Überblick). In einer zweiten Rezeptionswelle gerät auch zunehmend Bourdieus Methodologie in den Blick, was den (...) allem zugrundeliegenden Praxisbegriff freilegt. (shrink)

Mange-t-on pour vivre ou vit-on pour manger? La question est peut-être mal posée. Car ce qu'il faudrait affirmer : c'est que le vivant mange la vie à pleines dents, et que vivre n'est qu'une métonymie de "vivres". Voilà l'hypothèse de cet essai. La vie doit dès lors être pensée à partir d'un certain régime d'alimentation. Traduire Freud, pour aujourd'hui, c'est sans doute soutenir que le malaise dans notre culture est désormais alimentaire. Dégoût pour la vie, manque d'appétit pour elle, quand (...) le vivant a en assez "soupé" et trinqué, il lui faut retrouver le goût de vivre. Comment réalimenter la vie? Comment la vitaminer? Comment, encore, lui donner envie de vivre, alors même que tout concourt à l'en dégoûter (terrorisme, catastrophes écologiques, famine, dépressions en tous genres)? Cela engage l'écologie, et l'économie libidinale. Une diététhique reste donc à penser. Car vivre ne se peut sans quelque envie de vivre(s). Voilà pourquoi le vivant n'est que ce qu'il mange. Ce livre essaye d'interroger l'histoire de la philosophie, de Platon jusqu'à Levinas, afin de nourrir notre appétit et notre soif de vivre(s), et de nous libérer de l'ascétisme morbide, dont le nom le plus récent fut : Heidegger. (shrink)

The article discusses the work of the Orthodox Christian churches with children and especially children-at-risk. This work is new for these churches and is not yet theologically grounded or systematically organized. Observing the various activities of Orthodox Christians with children-at-risk, questions are raised, such as: is this missionary work, or is it ministry, or is it a task fulfilled by individuals and not by the Church at large? These questions are explored, yet readers are left to make their own conclusions. (...) What becomes evident is the necessity for the Orthodox churches to cooperate with other Christian churches and organizations that are engaged in work with children, and particularly those at-risk, so that all learn from each other and continue their ministry with children in more innovative and successful ways, for the glory of God and the salvation of people, especially the ‘little ones’. (shrink)

We investigate an enrichment of the propositional modal language L with a "universal" modality ■ having semantics x ⊧ ■φ iff ∀y(y ⊧ φ), and a countable set of "names" - a special kind of propositional variables ranging over singleton sets of worlds. The obtained language ℒ $_{c}$ proves to have a great expressive power. It is equivalent with respect to modal definability to another enrichment ℒ(⍯) of ℒ, where ⍯ is an additional modality with the semantics x ⊧ ⍯φ (...) iff Vy(y ≠ x → y ⊧ φ). Model-theoretic characterizations of modal definability in these languages are obtained. Further we consider deductive systems in ℒ $_{c}$ . Strong completeness of the normal ℒ $_{c}$ logics is proved with respect to models in which all worlds are named. Every ℒ $_{c}$ -logic axiomatized by formulae containing only names (but not propositional variables) is proved to be strongly frame-complete. Problems concerning transfer of properties ([in]completeness, filtration, finite model property etc.) from ℒ to ℒ $_{c}$ are discussed. Finally, further perspectives for names in multimodal environment are briefly sketched. (shrink)

Why are negative emotions so central in art reception far beyond tragedy? Revisiting classical aesthetics in the light of recent psychological research, we present a novel model to explain this much discussed (apparent) paradox. We argue that negative emotions are an important resource for the arts in general, rather than a special license for exceptional art forms only. The underlying rationale is that negative emotions have been shown to be particularly powerful in securing attention, intense emotional involvement, and high memorability, (...) and hence is precisely what artworks strive for. Two groups of processing mechanisms are identified that conjointly adopt the particular powers of negative emotions for art's purposes. The first group consists of psychological distancing mechanisms that are activated along with the cognitive schemata of art, representation, and fiction. These schemata imply personal safety and control over continuing or discontinuing exposure to artworks, thereby preventing negative emotions from becoming outright incompatible with expectations of enjoyment. This distancing sets the stage for a second group of processing components that allow art recipients to positively embrace the experiencing of negative emotions, thereby rendering art reception more intense, more interesting, more emotionally moving, more profound, and occasionally even more beautiful. These components include compositional interplays of positiveandnegative emotions, the effects of aesthetic virtues of using the media of (re)presentation (musical sound, words/language, color, shapes) on emotion perception, and meaning-making efforts. Moreover, our Distancing-Embracing model proposes that concomitant mixed emotions often help integrate negative emotions into altogether pleasurable trajectories. (shrink)

Past work demonstrates that ethical ideologies and behaviors are associated with the physical and psychological well-being of employees. Drawing from ethical impact theory and related research, this investigation utilizes two studies of working adults to examine the relationships among employees’ moral outrage, anger expression, and generalized well-being, with the latter construct being operationalized with multi-variable measures of ill-being, positive life outlook, and health consciousness. In the first study, two dimensions of moral outrage were identified, with results indicating that these components (...) variably related to the ill-being/well-being measures and similar health behaviors. In the second study, anger expression was accounted for, thus disentangling it from the moral outrage dimensions, with results demonstrating that such anger changed the nature of some relationships between the moral outrage dimensions and the well-being outcomes. Overall, anger expression was associated more closely with negative outcomes, while the moral outrage dimensions were more closely associated with positive outcomes. These findings suggest that moral outrage may be cathartic, which contributes to further theory development and enhances understanding of the complex relationships among individual moral outrage, anger expression, and well-being. The practical considerations of the results are discussed, and the study’s limitations and suggestions for future research directions are highlighted. (shrink)

The concept of free will has been heavily debated in philosophy and the social sciences. Its alleged importance lies in its association with phenomena fundamental to our understandings of self, such as autonomy, freedom, self-control, agency, and moral responsibility. Consequently, when neuroscience research is interpreted as challenging or even invalidating this concept, a number of heated social and ethical debates surface. We undertook a content analysis of media coverage of Libet’s et al.’s :623–642, 1983) landmark study, which is frequently interpreted (...) as posing a serious challenge to the existence of free will. Media descriptions of Libet et al.’s experiment provided limited details about the original study. Overall, many media articles reported that Libet et al.’s experiments undermined the existence of free will, despite acknowledging that several methodological limitations had been identified in the literature. A propensity to attribute greater credibility than warranted to neurobiological explanations could be at stake. (shrink)

Including empirical examples and theoretical clarifications on many of the analytical issues raised in his recently published Down to Earth (2018), this conversation with Bruno Latour and his collaborator, Danish sociologist Nikolaj Schultz, offers key insights into Latour’s recent and ongoing work. Revolving around questions on political ecology and social theory in our ‘New Climatic Regime’, Latour argues that in order to have politics you need a land and you need a people. This interview present reflections on such politics, such (...) land and such people, and it ends with a call for a sociology that takes up the task of connecting the three by investigating what he and Schultz call ‘geo-social classes’. The interview was conducted by Jakob Stein in Paris in November 2018. (shrink)

Aceasta este prima colectie de lucrari care acopera principalele directii in filosofia morala britanica. Sunt trei sectiuni: Radacini, Teorii si Aplicari Articolele sunt semnate de: C. Kirwan, Jim MacAdam,Rom Harre, Catherine Audard, Roger Crisp, David McNaughton, Onora O'Neill, John Lucas, Bernard Williams.

We introduce and study a variety of modal logics of parallelism, orthogonality, and affine geometries, for which we establish several completeness, decidability and complexity results and state a number of related open, and apparently difficult problems. We also demonstrate that lack of the finite model property of modal logics for sufficiently rich affine or projective geometries (incl. the real affine and projective planes) is a rather common phenomenon.