Basic Color Terms

When a free-listing task is used to elicit verbal concepts from a given semantic domain, it provides two indicators of the salience of each word for that linguistic community. These are the proportion of the subjects who include a word in their lists, and its average ranking priority position across the lists. The data also contain cues about the cognitive representation of the semantic domain, and in particular about the conceptual closeness among words. Closely associated words tend to prime each other and to appear in the lists in close succession. Clusters of mutually associated terms can be recognised, listed in one another's company, although with different priority for different subjects. We applied this approach to the domain of colour terms, converting lists for fourteen European languages into matrices of inter-term similarity, for analysis with multidimensional scaling (MDS) and hierarchical clustering. Two-dimensional MDS solutions or 'maps' were typically required to reflect two competing criteria by which terms were sequenced. Speakers of each language tended to follow a salience gradient, but also made separate clusters of fully-chromatic concepts -colour terms in strictu sensu -and unsaturated or desaturated concepts defined primarily by lightness rather than by hue. This and other features recurred across the languages despite their geographical and phylogenetic diversity, as cross-cultural universals in colour language, in addition to the well-known regularities governing basic colour terms and the stages of colour-lexicon development.

In this paper we compare five Finno-Ugric languages – Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian, Udmurt and Komi-Zyrian – and the Estonian Sign Language (unclassified) in different aspects: established basic colour terms, the proportion of basic colour terms and different colour terms in the collected word-corpora, the cognitive salience index values in the list task and the number of dominant colour tiles in the colour naming task. The data was collected, using the field method of Davies and Corbett, from all languages under consideration, providing a distinctive foundation for linguistic comparison. We argue that Finno-Ugric languages seem to possess relatively large colour vocabularies, especially due to their rich variety of word-formation types, e.g. the composition of compound words. All of the languages under consideration have developed to Stage VI or VII, possessing 7 to 11 lexicalised basic colour terms. The cognitive salience index helps to distinguish primary and secondary basic colo...

The present article analyses the use of the adjective roseus, 'pink, rose', throughout the history of the Latin language. Taking as the starting point Berlin and Kay's Basic Colour Terms framework, along with dictionary definitions, first the word's position in the hierarchy of Latin colour terms is observed. Then, the chromatic uses of the word in a 35-million-word corpus, divided into ancient, medieval, and modern segments, is explored. The corpus datacontaining around 500 instances -show that across time the term predominantly occurs in two main semantic fields: descriptions of the human body and representations of dawn. However, cultural changes influenced the way the word was employed, both literally and symbolically: while early modern poetry, modelled on ancient tradition, inherited its colour vocabulary, Christianity brought with it its own concepts, and these were reflected in chromatic vocabulary. Additionally, the range of objects to which roseus referred to constantly broadened. Finally, its use after Classical Antiquity suggests a shift towards a status as an emergent Basic Colour Term, and also came to be influenced by conventions of modern languages.

The colour category PURPLE is strangely heterogeneous, potentially due to the use of different cognates. We asked French speakers from Algeria, France, and Switzerland (n = 274) to produce up to three free associations with violet (basic term), pourpre, and lilas (non-basic terms). We counted 2,075 associations. We developed a coding scheme that i) covers nine major themes, and ii) shows high inter-rater reliability. Overall, the themes colour terms and natural elements and objects were most prominent showing that participants provided closely related associations. Finally, violet triggered more diverse semantic associations than pourpre or lilas. This was true for all countries. It seems that the basic term PURPLE carries more diverse associations and connotations than the non-basic terms.

Вихрова Анастасия Юрьевна, кандидат филологических наук, ведущий научный сотрудник (Московский государственный университет имени М. В. Ломоносова) При оформлении обложки использована фотография с изображением алтаря божеств земли и злаков Шэцзитань (Пекин). Поверхность жертвенника разделена на участки, засыпанные землей пяти цветов: в центрежёлтого, по сторонам света: красного (юг), серого (север), белого (запад) и зелено-синего (восток). Фотография из архива автора (2005 год).

This paper presents a flexible system for describing colours which links everyday language to colour order systems. The structure, based on that of the Natural Colour System (NCS) 1 , has reference points which are defined and named. The structure is illustrated and an account is given of the processes used to establish the system of colour names and modifying adjectives which identify the reference points.

La présente contribution propose un inventaire des termes de couleur en langue tupuri, leur classification, ainsi qu'une analyse des stratégies utilisées pour exprimer leurs nuances. Malgré les recherches antérieures menées sur le tupuri, la question de la catégorisation des couleurs n'a, à notre connaissance, pas fait l'objet d'une recherche. La présente vise donc à combler cette lacune. Elle s'appuie sur la Théorie des Termes Basiques (TTB) de Berlin B. et Kay P. (1969). L'analyse des données révèle que le tupuri dispose de trois couleurs fondamentales, auxquelles s'ajoutent de nombreux termes désignant des couleurs liées à des représentations culturelles spécifiques. Par ailleurs, les nuances de couleurs sont exprimées au moyen de procédés tels que la réduplication, la construction comparative et l'utilisation des idéophones.

La présente contribution propose un inventaire des termes de couleur en langue tupuri, leur classification, ainsi qu'une analyse des stratégies utilisées pour exprimer leurs nuances. Malgré les recherches antérieures menées sur le tupuri, la question de la catégorisation des couleurs n'a, à notre connaissance, pas fait l'objet d'une recherche. La présente vise donc à combler cette lacune. Elle s'appuie sur la Théorie des Termes Basiques (TTB) de Berlin B. et Kay P. (1969). L'analyse des données révèle que le tupuri dispose de trois couleurs fondamentales, auxquelles s'ajoutent de nombreux termes désignant des couleurs liées à des représentations culturelles spécifiques. Par ailleurs, les nuances de couleurs sont exprimées au moyen de procédés tels que la réduplication, la construction comparative et l'utilisation des idéophones.

Although the interest of literature in word combinations has significantly increased over the last decades, the full classification of their types and comprehensive collection of their forms is far from complete and flawless. This paper presents the results of a research project devoted precisely to the collection and analysis of Italian combinatorial lexicon. The investigation has both a theoretical and an empirical import. From the former point of view, it takes into account multiword units as specific forms of lexical entry. On the basis of the most recent achievements in lexicology, the notion of 'word format' is introduced and the vast variety of the combination formats is considered and classified. Various specific case studies of combinations are discussed. From the empirical point of view, the CombiNet dictionary is presented, an on-line lexicographic tool recording a sample of Italian multiword entries implementing an ample variety of entry formats. In addition to describing the lexicographic layout in detail, the paper illustrates the advanced research tool CombiNet is equipped with, as a device for both lexicographic and lexicological investigation.

Eesti keel ja liivi keel on omavahel lähedases suguluses: nad mõlemad kuuluvad läänemeresoome keelte lõunarühma. Lisaks eesti ühiskeelele on siinmail kõneldud ka eri murdeid ning murrakuid, nende seas Saarde murrakut. Saarde murraku kõnelejaskond elab Saarde kihelkonnas, mis asub Häädemeeste kihelkonna ja Mulgimaa vahel, ning on ajalooliselt olnud oluline liivi keele, Mulgi ning läänemurde kokkupuuteala, kus leidub mitmeid sarnasusi kõigi kolme keelega. Häädemeeste ja Saarde murrak moodustavad koos läänemurde liivipärase lõunarühma. Saarde kihelkond ja murrak on aga seni jäänud võrdluses liivi ja mulgi keelega suurema tähelepanuta.

Bakalaureusetöö eesmärk on luua ülevaade Saarde murraku ja liivi keele ühisosast häälikuliselt, morfoloogiliselt ja eriti sõnavaraliselt. Sõnavara kõrvutamisel võtan luubi alla nii Edela-Eesti kui ka Lõuna-Eesti, sh Mulgimaa (Halliste, Helme, Karksi, Tarvastu ja Paistu murrakud) – see on oluline mõistmaks Saarde kihelkonna rolli eesti murrete ja liivi keele kontaktalana. Võrdluses liivi keelega pööran eraldi tähelepanu nii salatsi- kui ka kuraliivi keelele. Murdesõnavara leidmiseks kasutan „Väikese murdesõnastiku“ (VMS) ja „Eesti murrete sõnaraamatu“ (EMS) veebiversiooni, salatsiliivi vasted leian teosest “Salisches-Livisches Wörterbuch“ (SLW), kuraliivi vastete jaoks kasutan liivi-eesti-läti veebisõnaraamatut (LEL). Sõnade päritolu andmed võtan  „Eesti etümoloogiasõnaraamatu“ (ETY) veebiversioonist või Soome etümoloogiasõnaraamatu „Suomen etymologien sanakirja“ (SES) veebiversioonist.

Uurimuses püüan leida vastused järgmistele küsimustele:
- Millised on Saarde murraku liivipärased hääliku- ja vormijooned?
- Millised on Saarde murraku ja liivi keele sõnavarasuhted?
- Kas Saarde murrakus ja liivi keeles on ainult neile omaseid sõnu, mida muudes Eesti murrakutes ei esine? Milline on nende päritolu?

Varasemate uurimuste ülevaates  tutvustan töö teemadega seonduvat kirjandust, sh murdeuurimusi, keelekontaktide ja salatsi- ning kuraliivi käsitlusi, kirjeldades lühidalt, mida on varem sarnastel teemadel uuritud.

Andmestike ja meetodite peatükis selgitan, kuidas on töö jaoks oluline info leitud, mida olen selleks teinud ning milliseid allikaid kasutanud.

Kolmas, ajaloolise tausta peatükk jaguneb kolmeks alapeatükiks, neist viimane veel kolmeks alapeatükiks. Selles peatükis esitan varem kogutud infot liivi keeleala kujunemisest, Saarde kihelkonna ajaloost ning ülevaate Saarde murrakust, kus toon välja häälikulised ja morfoloogilised nähtused, mis on omased Saarde murrakule. Viimasena esitan ülevaate Saarde murraku sõnavarasuhetest ning paigutan selle liivi-eesti läänemurde-lõunaeesti mulgi kontaktalasse.

Neljandas peatükis teen ülevaate liivi keele ja eesti murrete häälikulistest ja morfoloogilistest ühisjoontest, toetudes eeskätt O’Rourke’i ja Pajusalu 2016. aasta ning mulgi keele osas ka Salme Tanningu 1958. aasta artiklile.

Sõnavara analüüsi võtan ette viiendas peatükis, kus vaatlen sõnavara, mis on ühine Saarde murraku ja kahe liivi peamurde vahel. Kogutud sõnavara on jaotatud leviku järgi viieks alapeatükiks, millest „Mulgi, Saarde ja liivi ühissõnavara“ jaguneb veel kaheks alapeatükiks, kus esimeses käsitletud sõnu leidub eelkõige Mulgi murrakutes, teises alapeatükis on jälgitud aga laiema lõunaeestilise levikuga ühissõnavara. Peatüki lõpetab kokkuvõtlik analüüs leitud ühissõnavarast.

Bakalaureusetöö kokkuvõttes nimetan uuesti töö eesmärke, esitan lühidalt saadud tulemusi ning teen järeldusi nii tulemuste kui ka püstitatud uurimisküsimustele vastamise kohta.

The nature and variability of lexical semantic categories remains an enduring topic of controversy and debate. The Evolution of Semantic Systems (EoSS) project sought to address such issues by collecting naming data from 50 Indo-European languages, using a fi xed stimulus array covering four domains: colours, body parts, containers, and spatial relations. This inspired subsequent work in Iceland on heritage language (North American Icelandic) and sign language (Icelandic Sign Language). This paper reports key fi ndings relating to Icelandic. The least variability is found with body parts and colours, both of which are supported by specialised neuro-psychological architecture for visual and proprio-perception. 1

[Presentation given at XVII. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft "The Speakers of Indo-European and their World – 150 years of Indo-European studies in Basel", Basel (9.-12. 9. 2024)]

Reconstruction of colour terms for Proto-Indo-European is notoriously difficult. With the possible exception of ‘red’ (*h₁rewdʰ-), reliable reconstructions of BCT (Basic Color Terms) are limited to separate branches or even individual languages. Meanwhile, there is a large number of reconstructable roots with semantics like ‘to shine’ or ‘to glisten’, which yield a variety of colour terms in the daughter languages.

In a case study on Germanic, Crawford (2016) found that even reconstructing colour terms for the Germanic subbranch presents severe difficulties, and that the oldest Germanic colour terminology is much better explained by a brightness system, i.e. terms originally referring to brightness or luster rather than hue.
In our talk, these findings are supplemented with case studies from other Indo-European subbranches. We explore the possibility that Proto-Indo-European originally had a system that did not operate with colour terms as we know them from major modern languages like German, English or Russian, but instead used a system of terms referring to brightness and luster. Similar systems have been described in modern languages like Burarra and Warlpiri and have often been used to refute the universalist view of colour terminology brought forward by Berlin & Kay (1969).

This thesis explores the basic colour categories in Galician, a minority language spoken in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula that has been increasingly impacted by diglossic language contact with Spanish over the last century.
This study collected data from two age groups: the oldest speakers available, who were generally less affected by language contact with Spanish, and young adults, who were bilingual and the first generation schooled in Standard Galician. All participants reported having Galician as their everyday language. Data was collected from 98 participants from 11 collection points across Galicia seeking a balanced sample of the Galician speaking population and their dialects.
Results were extremely heterogeneous across and within age and gender subgroups. Nevertheless, some general trends have been identified. Consensus was much lower among elderly participants. Elderly males showed diverse categorisation patterns which ranged from distributions with fewer and more comprehensive categories (e.g. RED+ORANGE, YELLOW+ORANGE, PINK+ORANGE and even BLUE+PURPLE) to systems with more categories and more restrictive denotations. Elderly females presented similar categorisation patterns but tended to be ahead in the process of developing unitary categories, especially ORANGE. Young males had the highest consensus by generally presenting the classic 11 basic colour categories. Although young females agreed, some were developing new partitions such as LILAC.
The categorisation patterns attested across the age groups generally align with the Universals and Evolution (UE) model’s premises of partition and a series of predictable trajectories. The data, however, reveals the existence of extreme variation: members of the same generation can be several evolutionary stages apart and present different partition strategies for the same hue. Moreover, this thesis has uncovered a new possibility for the development of ORANGE. Instead of partitioning unitary ORANGE directly from MACRORED, there may be an intermediary stage PINK+ORANGE.
The labelling strategies for these categories were highly variable, particularly for RED and PURPLE. This variation is not frequently attested in colour semantics and highlights the importance of factors such as a) lack of — or recent — standardisation, b) the impact of language contact and c) the instability of labels when partition is not complete (ORANGE) but also much later after the category is consolidated (PURPLE).
This thesis shows the relevance of sociolinguistics, linguistic background and repertoire when collecting, processing and analysing data. Moreover, a new methodology is proposed to deal with this complex data: a series of increasingly comprehensive levels that allows an operational analysis without reducing the rich phenomena the data reports.

This paper is discussing Chhiah which denotes dark red in Taiwanese Southern Min. Chhiah, which is pronounced Chi in Standard Chinese, is also one of the basic color terms (BCT) in Old Chinese. However it refers red, not dark red. Chi was replaced by Hong as BCT in the history of Chinese completely. However it has been saved in some Sinitic languages, like Southern Min. Its reference range is smaller than that in Old Chinese, restricted around the peripheral range of red. We can confirm the reduction of its range and the lost of its membership of BCT in this phenomenon.

Annotatsioon. Lüüdi keel on üks vähem uuritud ja dokumenteeritud ning samal ajal üks ohustatumaid läänemeresoome keeli. Artikkel esitab ülevaate 2012. aastal kesklüüdi alal toimunud Tartu Ülikooli keeleteadlaste välitööde tulemustest ning on suunatud eelkõige keeleteadlastele, kuid ka ajaloolastele, etnoloogidele ning keelesotsioloogidele. Artikli esimeses osas esitatakse hinnang kesklüüdi murde kõnelejaskonna suuruse kohta tänapäeval. Teine osa sisaldab keelelist analüüsi, mis keskendub hääbuva murde nüüdisaegsele struktuurile-peamiselt fonoloogiale ja morfoloogiale. Toodud andmed täiendavad seniseid teadmisi kesklüüdi murde sisemisest liigendusest. Eraldi tähelepanu pühendatakse ka keelekontakti ilmingutele murdegrammatikas, eelkõige sellistele, mis on teoreetiliselt väljakutsuvad. Artiklis lõpus esitatakse vaadeldava murdeala keelenäiteid. Võtmesõnad: deskriptiivne keeleteadus, ohustatud keeled, keelekontaktid, keele dokumenteerimine, lüüdi keel, fonoloogia, morfoloogia Pühäjärve külanõukogu Pelduoine 334 Pühäjärvi 441 43 6 Lid´žmi 153 Sürdjä 86 Simaništo külanõukogu Simaništo 206 Vašakke 165 Siidniemi 217 Kaškan 321 4 ja Zaikovi hinnangutes saab ilmselt seletada trükiveaga ja mitte tegeliku lahkarvamusega. 3 Külad on tabelis ja mujal tekstis esitatud nende lüüdikeelse nimekuju järgi; venekeelsed külanimed on toodud allpool 2012. aasta ekspeditsiooni sotsiolingvistilises ülevaates.

This article explores the linguistic representations and perceptions of the words queer and kväär within the Estonian LGBT community. The study delves into the evolution of LGBT vocabulary in Estonian, focusing on how kväär, the equivalent of the English queer, is perceived and used.

Using corpus analysis and an online survey among the LGBT community, the research reveals nuanced attitudes toward kväär in Estonia. The corpus data shows shifts in usage frequencies of LGBT related words that reflect societal debates. The word kväär is multifaceted, used in various contexts, and represents intentional resistance to societal norms or expectations. It also serves as a lens for observing phenomena from a non-conformist perspective. Additionally, it marks membership in the LGBT community without necessitating a specific critical context.

The online survey results show diverse attitudes towards the word kväär among the LGBT community, with a slight tendency towards negative interpretations. Gender and age were identified as significant factors shaping attitudes, with non-binary individuals and those under 30 generally expressing more positive views.

Thematic analysis of the survey responses uncovers underlying themes and sentiments associated with the word kväär, elucidating various ways in which it is conceptualized and employed within the community. Themes that surfaced in the survey show the complexities and multifaceted nature of kväär as a linguistic construct, shedding light on its role in identity formation and community dynamics within the Estonian LGBT context.

The present study investigated Italian basic color terms (BCTs). It is an extension of our previous work that explored Italian basic color categories (BCCs) using a constrained colornaming method, with 11 Italian BCTs allowed, including blu for naming the BLUE area. Since a latter outcome indicated a categorization bias, here monolexemic color-naming method was employed, enabling also use of azzurro, deeply entrenched Italian term that designates light blue. In Experiment 1, colors (N=367), sampling the Munsell Mercator projection, were presented on a CRT; color names and reaction times of vocalization onset were recorded. Naming consistency and consensus were estimated. Consistency was obtained for 12 CTs, including the two blue terms; consensus was found for 11 CTs, excluding rosso 'red'. For each consensus category, color with the shortest RT was considered focal. In Experiment 2, consensus stimuli (N=72) were presented; on each trial, observers indicated the focal color ("best example") in an array of colors comprising a consensus category. For each of the 12 Italian CCs, centroid was calculated and focal color (two measures) estimated. Compared to English color terms, two outcomes are specific to Italian color naming: (i) naming of the RED-PURPLE area is highly refined, with consistent use of emergent non-BCTs; (ii) azzurro and blu both perform as BCTs dividing the BLUE area along the lightness dimension. The findings are considered in the framework of the weak relativity hypothesis. Historico-linguistic, environmental and pragmatic communication factors are discussed that conceivably have driven the extension of the BCT inventory in Italian.

In this paper we compare five Finno-Ugric languages – Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian, Udmurt and Komi-Zyrian – and the Estonian Sign Language (unclassified) in different aspects: established basic colour terms, the proportion of basic colour terms and different colour terms in the collected word-corpora, the cognitive salience index values in the list task and the number of dominant colour tiles in the colour naming task. The data was collected, using the field method of Davies and Corbett, from all languages under consideration, providing a distinctive foundation for linguistic comparison. We argue that Finno-Ugric languages seem to possess relatively large colour vocabularies, especially due to their rich variety of word-formation types, e.g. the composition of compound words. All of the languages under consideration have developed to Stage VI or VII, possessing 7 to 11 lexicalised basic colour terms. The cognitive salience index helps to distinguish primary and secondary basic colo...

Tallinna ülikool Ülevaade. Artiklis võrreldakse empiirilise uurimuse käigus kogutud eesti ja saksa värviomadussõnu ja tuuakse esile, millised on vaadeldavates keeltes kasutatud värviomadussõnade morfoloogilised ja semantilised moodustuspõhimõtted, millised värvisõnad esinevad aktiivses kasutuses, milliseid kasutatakse harvem ning mis põhjusel. Kahe keele värvisõnade kõrvutuses näidatakse ära nende kasutussarnasused ja-erinevused. Empiirilises uurimuses esinenud värvisõnad on koondatud esinemistüüpide alusel tüpoloogiaks, mis võimaldab kahe keele katsetulemusi kvantitatiivselt võrrelda. Värvisõnade analüüsimisel võetakse aluseks iga sõna nimetamissagedus.

Tallinna ülikool Ülevaade. Artiklis võrreldakse empiirilise uurimuse käigus kogutud eesti ja saksa värviomadussõnu ja tuuakse esile, millised on vaadeldavates keeltes kasutatud värviomadussõnade morfoloogilised ja semantilised moodustuspõhimõtted, millised värvisõnad esinevad aktiivses kasutuses, milliseid kasutatakse harvem ning mis põhjusel. Kahe keele värvisõnade kõrvutuses näidatakse ära nende kasutussarnasused ja-erinevused. Empiirilises uurimuses esinenud värvisõnad on koondatud esinemistüüpide alusel tüpoloogiaks, mis võimaldab kahe keele katsetulemusi kvantitatiivselt võrrelda. Värvisõnade analüüsimisel võetakse aluseks iga sõna nimetamissagedus.

The purpose of the article is the analysis of German and Polish idioms inclu ding names of colours as the structural elements in the morphosyntactic and semantic as pect, concerning the symbolism of names of colours in the idioms of both languages. German and Polish idioms were divided into morphosyntactic groups of verb, noun, ad verb idioms, idioms comparisons and, in the case of German, the group of the idioms ex hibiting the Struktur of a sentence. Semantic analysis allowed as to distinguish among German and Polish idioms three basic types of semantic equivalence: full equivalence, partial equivalence and zero equivalence. Among the symbolism of German and Polish names of colours in their general and idiomatic use only slight differences can be noticed, which is due to the same cultural background of both.

This article is part of a series of studies that the authors have dedicated to the history of Italian colour terminology. §1. highlights some of the theses of Berlin & Kay (1969) and other scholars, with particular reference to the distinction between basic and non-basic terms. §2. is dedicated to the history of colour terms in the PINK area from Old Italian to contemporary Italian, and to the emergence of rosa as a basic colour term. This section also delves into their figurative meanings and the fixed collocations in which they occur. §3. deals with the terms formed by means of morphological devices that are most frequently used in Italian to enrich the color lexicon.

Brent Berlin and Paul Kay, in their seminal work "Basic color terms" (1969), supposed that there are exceptionally 12 (instead of 11) basic colour terms in Hungarian. They argued that there are two basic terms-piros and vörös-for the red region. Our empirical study shows that there are exactly 11 basic colour terms in modern Hungarian. Ranked by the cognitive salience index proposed by U. Sutrop (2001) they are: piros 'red', kÉ ek 'blue', zöld 'green', sÉ arga 'yellow', fehÉ er 'white', fekete 'black', lila 'purple', barna 'brown', szürke 'grey', rÉ ozsaszé ın 'pink' and narancssÉ arga 'orange'. Second term for red vörös is not basic in Hungarian. Hungarian encodes the basic colour terms in the universal way.

The process of the Reformation in Iceland in its narrow sense is framed by the publication of the New Testament in 1540 and the whole Bible in 1584. It is sometimes believed that Icelandic lan­guage would have chang­ed more than what it has, if these translations had not seen the day.       During the 16th century, in all 51 books in Icelandic were printed. Almost all are translations, mostly from German. These books contain many loanwords, chiefly of German origin. These words are often a direct result of the Reformation, but some of them are considerably older. As an example, words with the German prefix be- were discussed to some length in the article.       Some loanwords from the 16th century have lived on to our time, but many were either wiped out in the Icelandic language purism of the nineteenth and twentieth century, or never became an integrated part of the language, outside of religious and official texts. Some words even only show up in one or two books of the 16th cent...

Este trabajo pretende relacionar dos debates emparentados sobre cómo la lógica y el lenguaje influyen sobre el pensamiento. Existe un eje de discusión en relación a si hay una pluralidad de lógicas o un único sistema lógico como criterio de evaluación para cualquier contexto de razonamiento. En lingüística, el debate surgido a partir de las interpretaciones fuertes y débiles de la hipótesis Sapir-Whorf ha centralizado la discusión en torno al grado de influencia o determinación del lenguaje sobre el pensamiento. Desde perspectivas y marcos teórico-conceptuales diferentes, lógica y lingüística delimitan y problematizan un campo de indagación y reflexión. El artículo, desde una mirada transdisciplinar, pretende dar cuenta y postular vasos comunicantes entre estos debates atendiendo a los matices de cada enfoque, así como proponer una hipótesis propia sobre la problemática planteada.

Heli laanekask annotatsioon. artiklis antakse ülevaade Tartu ülikooli eesti keele lektori Johann samuel Friedrich Boubrigi süntaksiloengutest 1829. aasta kevadsemestril. loengute sisu kirjeldatakse säilinud loengukäsikirja ning mitmete teiste arhivaalide põhjal, mida säilitatakse praegu Tartus eesti kirjandusmuuseumi eesti kultuuriloolises arhiivis. Vaadeldakse ka loengutega seostuvat omaaegset keeleteaduslikku kirjandust, eriti august Wilhelm Hupeli teose "ehstnische sprachlehre" (1818) süntaksipeatükki ning ajakirjas Beiträge zur genauern kenntniß der ehstnischen sprache avaldatud kirjutisi, aga ka eri teostes ilmunut. Võtmesõnad: eesti keele uurimise ajalugu, eesti kirjakeele ajalugu, eesti keel sihtkeelena, eesti keele süntaks, eesti keele morfosüntaks

Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.dnb.de abrufbar. Dieses Werk ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Alle Rechte, auch die der Übersetzung, des Nachdruckes und der Vervielfälti gung des Buches oder von Teilen daraus, vorbehalten. Kein Teil des Werkes darf ohne schriftliche Genehmigung des Verlages in irgendeiner Form (Fotokopie, Mikrofilm oder ein anderes Verfahren), auch nicht für Zwecke der Unterrichtsgestaltung-mit Ausnahme der in den § § 53, 54 URG genannten Sonderfälle-, reproduziert oder unter Verwendung elektronischer Systeme verarbeitet, vervielfältigt oder verbreitet werden.

The purpose of this research was to study the consistency between the company logos of the same industry. In this study the different industries were examined and the goal was to find recurring shapes, colors or fonts that were used between certain industry companies. In addition to that it was solved how different industry company logos differ from each other. The study was done as a qualitative comparative study. The material was gathered from documents. Different websites were used as the documents. On those websites were listed well-known companies from every investigated industry. Companies were gathered together and after that all the repeated features were registered. Next up the industries were compared between each other so it would settle if the repetitive features were only to be found between companies of specific industry or if the feature was common despite the industry. Results from this research showed that consistency was found between companies of the same industries. The feature might have been a specific color or combination of colors. It might have been a round, angular or abstract shape. It might have also been a specific font that the company used or using the name of the company as the whole logo. After all the analyzing and comparing, stereotypical logos were created to represent the most common features of every industry. Based on the results a conclusion can be made that industries really differ from each other. At the same time every company wants to be unique, but they also use a lot of features which indicates the industry of the company. It might not be just a certain feature but rather the way of combining all the elements to create a certain looking entity.

Ноздрев в «Мертвых душах» Н. В. Гоголя хвастался своими необычными лошадьми – голубой или розовой шерсти. Насколько фантастичны такие животные? Водились ли они в России? В статье разбирается вопрос о так называемых голубых лошадях. Комментирование этого места в «Мертвых душах» требует обращения к лингвистическим аспектам литературного текста. Цветообозначения у славян (и конкретно – в древнерусском и рус-ском языках) активно исследовались многими учеными, однако реконструируемая картина до сих пор не вполне ясна в деталях. Кроме того, славянская гиппологическая лексика – весьма древняя, со своими особенностями, непростая для изучения. Привлечение текстов, созданных коневодами-практиками, позволяет уточнить высказанные лингвистами суждения. Так называемая голубая масть лошадей была известна в России издавна, «кони голубые» впервые упомянуты в новгородской берестяной грамоте XIII в. Сейчас такую масть называют мышастой. Термин «голубой» прежде мог пониматься как серый. Цвет шерсти голубых (мышастых) лошадей – пепельно-серый, с черной гривой, хвостом, ногами. Такие лошади в старину очень ценились. Однако гоголевский герой, хвастаясь, вполне мог подразумевать животных небывалых – лазоревых, небесно-голубых, в соответствии с уже современным представлением о том, каким именно является голубой цвет. / Nozdryov in the "Dead Souls" by Nikolai V. Gogol boasted of his unusual horses with light-blue or pink equine coat color. Were these animals mythical? Did they inhabit Russia? This paper deals with the issue of so-called blue horses. The commenting on this passage in the Gogol’s "Dead Souls" requires an appeal to linguistic aspects of the literary text. Color terms among Slavs (and specifically in the Old Russian and Russian languages) have been actively studied by many scientists, but the reconstructed picture is still not quite detailed. Besides, the vocabulary of hippology in the Slavic languages is very ancient, with its own characteristics and difficult to study. The texts created by practicing horse breeders and owners make it possible to clarify the conclusions of the linguists. The so-called "goluboy" (light-blue) equine coat color has been known in Russia for a long time. "Light-blue horses" were first mentioned in the Novgorod birch bark of the 13th century. Now such equine coat color is called "myshastaya" (mousey, like a mouse). The term "goluboy" ("light-blue") could previously be understood as gray. The coat color of "light-blue" (mousey) horses is ash-gray, with a black mane, tail, and legs. These horses were highly valued. However, Gogol's hero Nozdryov could mean unprecedented, extraordinary light-blue (sky-blue) animals, in accordance with the contemporary understanding of this color, given that he was boasting.

Using surface colours as stimuli, the present research was aimed at the two following goals: (1) To determine the chromatic angles related to categorical effects type B-B (Bezold-Brücke). (2) To determine the colourimetric characteristics compatible with each Spanish colour basic category. To get these goals the full set of tiles included in the NCS (Natural Colour System) was used in a monolexemic naming task. Results showed that the use of chromatic categories was not only influenced by chromatic angle (Hu'v') but also by saturation (Su'v') and lightness (L*). This last parameter had a decisive influence on the responses to half of the chromatic circle (from G50Y to R50B, in terms of NCS nomenclature). Specifically, frequent B-B type categorical effects appeared: stimuli with the same chromatic angle, but different lightness being named differently.

määral ja vajaduse järgi on kasutatud veel mitmeid muid allikaid. Ülevaadete ulatus, rõhuasetus ja seega ka ülesehitus on üksjagu erinevad. Turunen käsitleb keelerühma tervikuna, kohati algkeelest lähtudes, käsitlemata iga punkti juures tingimata kõiki keeli. Viitso annab kõigepealt lühiülevaate igast keelest eraldi ja seejärel nende rühmitamisest, fonoloogiast ja morfoloogiast, lühidalt ka süntaksist ja sõnavarast. Ka Laakso alustab ülevaatega keeltest (keskendudes kõnelejate arvule), seejärel jätkab keelerühma kui terviku iseloomustamisega (lähtudes algkeelest ja tuues näiteid üksikkeeltest ning vaatlemata lähemalt süntaksit) ning lõpuks käsitleb läänemeresoome keelte ajalugu ja kujunemist. Käesolev referaat püüab anda ülevaate teemast, mite niivõrd ühest konkreetsest allikast, seega on ühtlustatud nii ülesehitust (mis laias laastus siiski järgib Laakso oma) kui keelenimetusi, kohati ka näidete kirjaviisi. Tunnustes ja liidetes märgib suur A, O või U vokaalharmooniast sõltuvat vormi ka siis, kui algtekstis on need vormid eraldi välja kirjutatud. V ja C tähistavad mingisugust vokaali või konsonanti, resp. Keelte nimetamisel on järgitud Eesti Keele Instituudi LINGUAE-andmebaasi termineid (segaseim on ilmselt livviko = Aunus = Olonets(ian)), v.a seal keelena puuduva lõunaeesti puhul (= Lõuna-Eesti murded = South(ern) Estonian; mujal veel nt ugala). Käesoleva töö raames tähendab eesti 'põhjaeesti'; kui mõni autor on selle all silmas pidanud ka lõunaeestit, siis on siin nimetatud mõlemat, v.a juhul, kui kõnealune joon lõunaeesti puhul ei kehti. Näitesõna või-lause ees on vajadusel kasutatud järgmisi keelelühendeid: blt-balti, grm-germaani, lsm-läänemeresoome, url-uurali (algkeelte või vastavate keelerühmade kohta), ee-eesti, is-isuri, krj-karjala, le-lõunaeesti, lv-liivi, lü

In the present study we explored Russian colour naming in a web-based psycholinguistic experiment (http://www.colournaming.com). Colour singletons representing the Munsell Color Solid (N=600 in total) were presented on a computer monitor and named using an unconstrained colour-naming method. Respondents were Russian speakers (N=713). For gender-split equal-size samples (N F =333, N M =333) we estimated and compared (i) location of centroids of 12 Russian basic colour terms (BCTs); (ii) the number of words in colour descriptors; (iii) occurrences of BCTs most frequent non-BCTs. We found a close correspondence between females' and males' BCT centroids. Among individual BCTs, the highest inter-gender agreement was for seryj 'grey' and goluboj 'light blue', while the lowest was for sinij 'dark blue' and krasnyj 'red'. Females revealed a significantly richer repertory of distinct colour descriptors, with great variety of monolexemic non-BCTs and "fancy" colour names; in comparison, males offered relatively more BCTs or their compounds. Along with these measures, we gauged denotata of most frequent CTs, reflected by linguistic segmentation of colour space, by employing a synthetic observer trained by gender-specific responses. This psycholinguistic representation revealed females' more refined linguistic segmentation, compared to males, with higher linguistic density predominantly along the redgreen axis of colour space.

In this paper we compare fi ve Finno-Ugric languages-Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian, Udmurt and Komi-Zyrian-and the Estonian Sign Language (unclassifi ed) in different aspects: established basic colour terms, the proportion of basic colour terms and different colour terms in the collected word-corpora, the cognitive salience index values in the list task and the number of dominant colour tiles in the colour naming task. The data was collected, using the fi eld method of Davies and Corbett, from all languages under consideration, providing a distinctive foundation for linguistic comparison. We argue that Finno-Ugric languages seem to possess relatively large colour vocabularies, especially due to their rich variety of word-formation types, e.g. the composition of compound words. All of the languages under consideration have developed to Stage VI or VII, possessing 7 to 11 lexicalised basic colour terms. The cognitive salience index helps to distinguish primary and secondary basic colour terms, showing certain comprehensive patterns which are similar to Russian and English.

The colour category PURPLE is strangely heterogeneous, potentially due to the use of different cognates. We asked French speakers from Algeria, France, and Switzerland (n = 274) to produce up to three free associations with violet (basic term), pourpre, and lilas (non-basic terms). We counted 2,075 associations. We developed a coding scheme that i) covers nine major themes, and ii) shows high inter-rater reliability. Overall, the themes colour terms and natural elements and objects were most prominent showing that participants provided closely related associations. Finally, violet triggered more diverse semantic associations than pourpre or lilas. This was true for all countries. It seems that the basic term PURPLE carries more diverse associations and connotations than the non-basic terms.