Wikipedia

Batavi (Germanic tribe)

"Batavians" redirects here. For other uses, see Batavia and Batavi.

The Batavi or Batavians were a Roman era Germanic people that lived in Batavia in the eastern Rhine delta, in what is now the Netherlands, and what was then the northernmost border of the Roman Empire in continental Europe. Their Roman capital was at Nijmegen (Latin: Ulpia Noviomagus). Their origins are uncertain but they appear to have been established in Batavia in roughly 50-15 BC, when a Rome-allied Chatti military elite settled within a Celtic-influenced community, which had been living there long before the Romans arrived. The Batavians disappeared from the historical record during the Crisis of the Third Century, when Rome lost control of Batavia to tribes from north of the Rhine, and Nijmegen was abandoned by 250 AD. When they afterwards recovered partial control, the Romans moved large parts of the native population to other parts of the empire.

The Roman border along the Lower Rhine

Batavia was already referred to by the Roman leader Julius Caesar as the "island of the Batavi" in his account of his campaigns in Gaul in 58-52 BC - although he did not explain who the Batavi were. Tacitus, writing in about 100 AD, reported that they had a special old alliance with the empire as major contributors to the Roman military, and they did not pay any other form of tribute or tax. Some modern scholars have suggested that this relationship was established by Caesar himself who had a Germanic cavalry unit which fought for him in Gaul, and then in his Roman civil war. According to these proposals, this force evolved into the later bodyguard of Caesar's imperial successors in the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

Apart from the bodyguard, the Batavi in the first century AD provided 9 or 10 auxiliary cohorts which each included cavalry, all with their own Batavian command structures. Based upon estimates of the Batavian population at about 40,000 people, of whom 5000 or more were posted in the Roman military, historians believe the Batavi had a highly militarized society, even if they were able to recruit from neighbouring populations. While at least one cohort stayed close to home, eight played an important role in the Roman subjugation of Britain. Networks of military families, many now Roman citizens, continued to identify as Batavi, but many now lived outside their home region.

In 69 AD, the "Year of the Four Emperors", Julius Civilis, a Batavi leader and Roman citizen, led the Batavian Revolt against the empire. This was a major revolt, which involved not only the Batavi and their neighbours the Cananefates, but also allies from both inside and outside the empire. Vitellius, a Roman governor of their region who was contending to become emperor was eventually defeated, and the Batavi were eventually forced to come to an agreement with the new emperor Vespasian. After this revolt, the Batavian forces were once again posted in Britain but in the second century Batavian forces began to be assigned to the Danubian frontier. Gradually the "Batavian" units became less ethnically Batavian.

Name and language

edit

There is little evidence concerning the language of the Roman era Batavi, but a significant number of their personal names have Germanic etymologies, while a smaller number are Celtic.[1]

Scholars generally believe that the regional name "Batavia" has a Germanic etymology, *bat-awjō. The first part is reconstructed as the stem of a word *bataz meaning "good", which is reflected for example in modern English "best" or "better". The second reconstructed word could refer to floodplains, meadows, and islands, and derives ultimately from the Indo-European word for water. If the etymology is correct then it implies that the ethnonym ultimately derives from an older placename (even though the placename is not attested until long after the ethnonym).[2]

It is uncertain whether the regional name Batavia, or the ethnic name Batavi was first, but based on the etymology of the name it has been argued that the Batavi first named the region, and then named themselves after the region.[2] Many of the early Roman mentions of Batavia call it simply the island of the Batavians.[3] The later Latin name "Batavia" is not found in Roman texts until centuries later. Dio Cassius implied a similar Greek term (Βαταούας as genitive singular) in the early third century, and claimed that the Batavi were named after their country. The Latin spelling Batavia started to appear in the late 3rd century and early 4th century Latin Panegyrics, but only after the Batavians themselves had ceased to appear in records.[4]

The island of the Batavi

edit
 
A reconstruction of the topography of the Netherlands in about 50 AD
 
A Roman cavalry helmet, discovered in 1915 near Nijmegen, from the second half of the first century, Museum het Valkhof
 
Funerary stela of one of Nero's Corporis Custodes, the imperial Germanic bodyguard. The bodyguard, Indus, was of the Batavian tribe.

The Batavi are not mentioned directly by Julius Caesar in his commentary on his Gallic Wars, which lasted from 58 to 52 BC. However, he described the "Island of the Batavi" (Insula Batavorum) as an island in the Rhine delta, where there are many islands. He named the first large offshoot of the Rhine where the delta begins as the Waal (Vacalus), and according to him it joined a different river, the Meuse (Latin: Mosa), and together Waal and Meuse formed a boundary of this island. He noted that there were also many other large islands in the delta, many inhabited by barbarian nations (barbaris nationibus), some of whom were thought to live on fish and the eggs of birds.[5]

In another passage Caesar specifies that Menapii were inhabiting both sides of the Rhine. somewhere near where it empties into the sea.[6] These were a people bordering on the ocean, and inhabiting areas with tidal islands, protected by forests and swamps. The Menapii were forced back from the Rhine when the Germanic Tencteri and Usipetes entered the area. Caesar attacked these two peoples between the Meuse and Rhine, slaughtering many of them at the place where the Rhine (Waal) flows into the Meuse, forcing the survivors back to the opposite side of the Rhine. Caesar also makes it clear that the Eburones were the southern neighbours of the Menapii in the delta, and that many Eburones, fleeing from Caesar, sought refuge in this region when Caesar sought to annihilate them in 53-51 BC.[7]

Tacitus and Pliny, like Caesar, refer to the "Island of the Batavi" in the first century. Pliny wrote about 23 AD, describing the Insula Batavorum as the most famous of the many Rhine delta islands, and he notes that the Batavi shared it with the Canninefates. On other delta islands live Frisii, Chauci, Frisiavones, Sturii, and Marsaci.[8] Tacitus agrees that the Canninefates shared the same island, and described them as being the same as the Batavi in origin, language, and valour, but smaller in numbers.[9]

Tacitus, writing in about 100 AD, also uses the term Insula Batavorum. In his Annals he notes that it had many convenient landing places for building up a fleet, and that the island begins at the point where the Rhine first splits as it approaches the sea. He calls the branch which splits off on the Gaulish side the Waal (Vahalis), and like Caesar he describes the Waal as merging into the Meuse. The other branch of the Rhine "retains its name and the force of its current on the side that flows past Germania".[10] In another work he mentions that apart from the island, the Batavi occupy a small part of the river bank.[11] He also mentioned the Insula Batavorum in his account of the Batavian Revolt, in his Histories. In this passage he describes how the Batavians sailed a fleet into the mouth of the Meuse, which was like a sea, where it "pours its waters together with the Rhine into the Ocean".[12]

For modern scholars there is some uncertainty about where the Waal joined the Meuse, and during which periods this happened. Nico Roymans argues that they must have joined near Lith, which is where the two rivers come closest to joining today.[13]

Origins

edit

It is not clear exactly when and how the Romans and Batavi first came into contact, and this makes it unclear when the Batavi elite first settled in the Rhine delta.[14] It may have been Caesar himself who settled them there.[15] In any case, they probably settled in the Rhine delta some time between 55 BC in the time of Caesar's wars, and 15 BC, when the Romans established a major presence at the Batavian city of Nijmegen, although it has also been argued that it could have even happened before Caesar's arrival in the region.[16] Tacitus, writing about 100 AD, reported that the Batavi, who he described as the most valorous of all the peoples (gentes) on the Rhine, had originally been a part of the Chatti. According to Tacitus, domestic strife (seditione domestica) forced the Batavi to move away from the other Chatti.[11][17]

Caesar did not report the location of the Chatti in his time, nor mention them at all. Many historians believe they lived in the same region where they would later live in the first century AD, approximately corresponding to the modern German state of Hesse. There is evidence that the Batavi began producing a new coinage based off one earlier made earlier at the oppidum on the Dünsberg in Hesse. On this basis, Lanting and van der Plicht argue that the Batavian settlement must have happened about 40 BC, at around the time when Agrippa was governor in Gaul.[18] On the other hand, Petrikovits argued that the Chatti must originally have lived closer to Batavia. He noted how Dio Cassius wrote that the Chatti, like the Batavi, were assigned land by the Romans.[19] He also noted that in the Lower Rhine region not only the Batavi and Cananefates had a likely connection to the Chatti, but also the Chattuarii, who lived east of Batavia, and whose name means “holders/inhabitants of Chatti-land”.[20]

Tacitus described the new settlement place in the Rhine delta as a place where the Batavi "would become part of the Roman Empire" (in quibus pars Romani imperii fierent),[11] and said they seized "the furthest corner of the Gallic coast, empty of inhabitants".[17] However, the idea that their eastern part of the delta had previously been uninhabited is contradicted by archaeological evidence, which shows continuous habitation from at least the third century BC onward.[21] It is more likely that an elite group of these "Chatto-Batavi" moved to the delta and integrated themselves into the pre-existing population, bringing new traditions with them.[22] Nico Roymans argues that the pre-Roman people of Batavi were a branch of the Eburones, who Caesar claimed to have destroyed.[23]

Tacitus also emphasized the unusual nature of the Batavian agreements with Rome. "Their honour still remains, and the mark of their ancient alliance: they are neither burdened with tribute, nor worn down by tax-collectors. Exempt from imposts and contributions, and set apart only for the purposes of war, they are, as it were, weapons and armour, reserved for battle."[11] And in another work: "Nor were they worn down by obligations (a rare thing in alliance with stronger powers): they supplied only men and arms for the empire, long trained in German wars, and afterwards increased in renown by service in Britain, when cohorts were sent over there, which, by ancient custom, were commanded by the noblest of their countrymen. At home, too, there was a levy of cavalry, with a special skill in swimming: keeping hold of their arms and horses, they charged across the Rhine in unbroken squadrons."[17]

Although Caesar didn't mention the Batavi he mentioned that he recruited a unit of about 400 Germani horsemen, who he kept close to himself during battle at Neung-sur-Beuvron against Vercingetorix in 52 BC, and then sent into the battle at a crucial moment.[24] Modern scholars such as Speidel and Roymans believe these Germanic troops are the same ones mentioned in his accounts of the subsequent civil wars. They were used by him against Pompey's Roman forces in Spain and Alexandria, and on at least one occasion they were used to attack across a river. The poet Lucan explicitly said that Caesar had Batavi with him during the civil war, and this is probably correct.[25] This Germanic force is believed to have developed into the Julio-Claudian dynasty's personal Germanic bodyguard, which was sometimes called the Numerus Batavorum, and was in later generations dominated by Batavi and Ubii.[26]

Archaeological evidence

edit

The inhabitants of Batavia both before and after Caesar show archaeological traits associated with the La Tène culture, which is a culture traditionally associated with Celts. Relevant traits include major fortified settlements called oppida, the use of specific types of coins, and the emergence of collective sanctuaries in Empel, Kessel near modern Lith, and Elst, which continued to be used into imperial times.[27] Glass bracelets associated with the La Tène culture also remained very popular in eastern Batavia into the first century AD, under imperial rule.[28]

Archeological evidence suggests they lived in small villages, composed of six to 12 houses in the very fertile lands between the rivers, and lived by agriculture and cattle-raising. Finds of horse skeletons in graves suggest a strong equestrian preoccupation.[citation needed]

Main settlements

edit

The strategic position, to wit the high bank of the Waal offering an unimpeded view far into Germania Transrhenana (Germania Beyond the Rhine), was recognized first by Drusus, who built a massive fortress (castra) and a headquarters (praetorium) in imperial style.[citation needed] The latter was in use until the Batavian revolt. On the south bank of the Waal (in what is now Nijmegen) a Roman administrative center was built, called Oppidum Batavorum. This centre was razed during the Batavian Revolt. The Smetius Collection was instrumental in settling the debate about the exact location of the Batavians.

Military units

edit

The Batavi were used to form the bulk of the Emperor's personal Germanic bodyguard from Augustus to Galba. Batavians were also recruited into the later Emperors' horse guards, the Equites singulares Augusti.

Apart from the imperial bodyguard, the Batavi in the first century AD provided 9 or 10 auxiliary cohorts which each included cavalry, all with their own Batavian command structures.[29] One or two of them appear to have stayed close to home, while the other eight were part-cavalry units cohortes equitatae, each with about 500 men, and are best known for their important role in the subjugation of Britain.[30] In line with more general changes being made to cohort sizes, these eight were transformed after the Batavian Revolt, giving four 1000-man ("milliary") cohorts, numbered I, II, III and IX.[31] These 4 units were returned to serve in Britain during the late first and early second century.[32]

In the second century many of the Batavian units were moved east, to areas near the Danube frontier. In about 130 AD, Cohort I was in Noricum, and Cohort II was in Dacia, and both were apparently in Pannonia in 98 AD. Cohort III was in Raetia in 107 and in Pannonia by 135, while Cohort IX was in Raetia by 116. The units were no longer being posted close to each other, and were no longer commanded or manned exclusively by Batavians.[33] A single 500 man unit continued to serve in Britain until the 3rd or 4th century, and was already present there in 122 AD.[34]

Numerous altars and tombstones of the cohorts of Batavi, dating to the second century and third century, have been found along Hadrian's Wall, notably at Castlecary and Carrawburgh. As well as in Germany, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Romania and Austria.

Amphibious attack

edit

Dio Cassius describes a surprise tactic employed by Aulus Plautius against the "barbarians"—the British Celts— at the battle of the River Medway, 43:

The barbarians thought that Romans would not be able to cross it without a bridge, and consequently bivouacked in rather careless fashion on the opposite bank; but he sent across a detachment of Germanic tribesmen, who were accustomed to swim easily in full armour across the most turbulent streams. [...] Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it empties into the ocean and at flood-tide forms a lake. This they easily crossed because they knew where the firm ground and the easy passages in this region were to be found; but the Romans in attempting to follow them were not so successful. However, the Germans swam across again and some others got over by a bridge a little way up-stream, after which they assailed the barbarians from several sides at once and cut down many of them. (Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 60:20)

It is uncertain how they were able to accomplish this feat. The late fourth century writer on Roman military affairs Vegetius mentions soldiers using reed rafts, drawn by leather leads, to transport equipment across rivers.[35] But the sources suggest the Batavi were able to swim across rivers actually wearing full armour and weapons. This would only have been possible by the use of some kind of buoyancy device: Ammianus Marcellinus mentions that the Cornuti regiment swam across a river floating on their shields "as on a canoe" (357).[36] Since the shields were wooden, they may have provided sufficient buoyancy[citation needed]

A Batavian contingent was used in an amphibious assault on Ynys Mon (Anglesey), taking the assembled Druids by surprise, as they were only expecting Roman ships.[37]

Revolt of the Batavi

edit
Main article: Revolt of the Batavi
 
The Conspiracy of the Batavians under Claudius Civilis by Rembrandt van Rijn

After the Batavian participation in the subjugation of Britain, tensions rose between them and the empire, for reasons which are no longer clear. In 68 AD Gaius Julius Civilis, a leader of the Batavi, and a Roman citizen, was paraded in chains in Rome before Nero, accused of treason. His brother had already been executed. Nero was the last Julio-Claudian emperor Nero and was deposed soon after. The next emperor Galba, released him but also disbanded the Germanic bodyguard.

69 AD was the "Year of the Four Emperors". Civilis was again arrested when he returned to Gaul, by the governor of Germania inferior, Vitellius. He was released when Vitellius began putting together forces to invade Italy, to install himself as emperor. At first he planned to bring the eight cohorts of Batavians who had been stationed in Britain, but riots broke out and these forces were eventually sent home.

Civilis led the Batavi and their neighbours into the so-called Batavian revolt. He managed to capture Castra Vetera, the Romans' lost two legions, while two others (I Germanica and XVI Gallica) were controlled by the rebels. The rebellion became a real threat to the Empire when the conflict escalated to northern Gaul and Germania.

The Roman army retaliated and invaded the insula Batavorum. A bridge was built over the river Nabalia, where the warring parties approached each other on both sides to negotiate peace. The narrative was told in great detail in Tacitus' History, book iv, although, unfortunately, the narrative breaks off abruptly at the climax. Following the uprising, Legio X Gemina was housed in a stone castra to keep an eye on the Batavians.

As Civilis claimed to be on the side of Vespasian, who eventually won, the conflict can at least partly be seen as a part of a greater Roman civil war.

Fate of the Batavi

edit

After the defeat of the revolt, the Batavi royal clan lost some of its authority and by about 100 AD, the Batavi state or civitas Batavorum was given municipium status within the Roman administrative system.[38]

Although inscriptional evidence shows that many residents still identified primarily as Batavi, during the 2nd and early third centuries there is also a new tendency of residents who referred to themselves as people of the civitas capital at Noviomagus, or Ulpia Noviomagus, (modern Nijmegen). This may have been influenced not only by the decreased importance of the old royal family, but also by the increasing proportion of people there who now had Roman citizenship, or who descended from new settlers from other parts of the empire, such as veterans and traders.[39]

During the crisis of the third century and particularly the revolt of the Menapian Carausius, the Romans lost control of the Rhine delta. Ulpia Noviomagus was abondoned by about 250 AD.[40] The Panegyrici Latini report that the area was taken over by Franks and Frisians, including the Chamavi. When the Roman military reasserted itself under the new tetrarchy, it moved large numbers of people to other regions. The population and agricultural activity decreased dramatically, and the Romans had given it up as an area for normal taxation and governance.[41]

Some Frankish dediticii were allowed to remain in Batavia around 293-294 AD when it was reconquered by Constantius Chlorus. New units were created from the defeated Franks, known as the Batavi seniores, Batavi iuniores, Equites Batavi seniores en Equites Batavi iuniores. New fortifications were built at Noviomagus around 300 AD, and the Roman military continued to use this and other delta forts until the second half of the 5th century.[40]

Franks were also later allowed to settle south of the Meuse in Texandria by emperor Constans in 342 AD, after fighting there in 341 AD. Julian the apostate also associated the usurper Magnentius, who had killed emperor Constans and ruled the region in 350-353 AD, with the Franks and Saxons of this region. By 358, after the Chamavi once again attempted to take control of the area, the Salians were accepted by the Romans as the local rulers of Batavia.[42]

Julian created new military units named after the Salians, Chamavii and other inhabitants of the delta.[43]

In the Late Roman army there was still a unit called Batavi. The name of the Bavarian town of Passau descends from the Roman Batavis, which was named after the Batavi. The town's name is old as it shows the typical effects of the High German consonant shift (b > p, t > ss).

The Batavian revival

edit
Main article: History of the Netherlands § Batavians

In the 16th-century emergence of a popular foundation story and origin myth for the Dutch people, the Batavians came to be regarded as their ancestors during their national struggle for independence during the Eighty Years' War.[44][45] The mix of fancy and fact in the Cronyke van Hollandt, Zeelandt ende Vriesland (called the Divisiekroniek) by the Augustinian friar and humanist Cornelius Gerardi Aurelius, first published in 1517, brought the spare remarks in Tacitus' newly rediscovered Germania to a popular public; it was being reprinted as late as 1802.[46] Contemporary Dutch virtues of independence, fortitude and industry were fully recognizable among the Batavians in more scholarly history represented in Hugo Grotius' Liber de Antiquitate Republicae Batavicorum (1610). The origin was perpetuated by Romeyn de Hooghe's Spiegel van Staat der Vereenigden Nederlanden ("Mirror of the State of the United Netherlands," 1706), which also ran to many editions, and it was revived in the atmosphere of Romantic nationalism in the late eighteenth-century reforms that saw a short-lived Batavian Republic and, in the colony of the Dutch East Indies, a capital that was named Batavia. Though since Indonesian independence the city is called Jakarta, its inhabitants up to the present still call themselves Betawi or Orang Betawi, i.e. "People of Batavia" – a name ultimately derived from the ancient Batavians.[47]

The success of this tale of origins was mostly due to resemblance in anthropology, which was based on tribal knowledge. Being politically and geographically inclusive, this historical vision filled the needs of Dutch nation-building and integration in the 1890–1914 era.

However, a disadvantage of this historical nationalism soon became apparent. It suggested there were no strong external borders, while allowing for the fairly clear-cut internal borders that were emerging as the society polarized into three parts. After 1945, the tribal knowledge lost its grip on anthropology and mostly vanished.[48] Modern variants of the Batavian founding myth are made more accurate by pointing out that the Batavians were one part of the ancestry of the Dutch people - together with the Frisians, Franks and Saxons – by tracing patterns of DNA. Echoes of this cultural continuity can still be found among various areas of Dutch modern culture, such as the very popular replica of the ship Batavia that can today be found in Lelystad.

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^ Neumann 2008, pp. 32–33.
  2. ^ a b Toorians 2006, pp. 180–182.
  3. ^ Callies 1975 citing Caesar, Gallic War, 4.10; Pliny, Natural History, 4.101; Tacitus, Germania 29.
  4. ^ See Rasch 2005, p. 25 for word use references including Dio, Roman History 55.24.
  5. ^ Caesar, Gallic War, 4.10
  6. ^ Caesar, Gallic War, 4.1 and 4.4
  7. ^ See Roymans 2004, pp. 23, 25, 43–44, citing Caesar, Gallic War, 4.4 and 6.31. See also 3.28-29, 6.32-34 for descriptions of the landscape.
  8. ^ Pliny, Natural History, 4.101 English, Latin
  9. ^ Tacitus, Histories, 4.15
  10. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 2.6
  11. ^ a b c d Cornelius Tacitus, Germania 29
  12. ^ Tacitus, Histories, 5.13
  13. ^ Roymans 2004, pp. 131–132.
  14. ^ Callies 1975.
  15. ^ Roymans 2004, p. 251.
  16. ^ Callies 1975. Roymans 2004, p. 26 presumes it was after Caesar left the area, giving 50 BC-15 BC or 50 BC-12 BC (p.55)
  17. ^ a b c Tacitus, Histories 4.12
  18. ^ Lanting & van der Plicht 2010, p. 53.
  19. ^ Petrokovits 1981, p. 379 citing Dio Cassius 54.36 Greek, English
  20. ^ Petrokovits 1981, p. 380, and Neumann 1981
  21. ^ Roymans 2004, p. 27.
  22. ^ Roymans 2004, pp. 27, 55, 61.
  23. ^ Roymans 2004, pp. 23–26.
  24. ^ Roymans 2004, p. 20 citing Caesar, Gallic War, 7.13
  25. ^ Roymans 2004, p. 56.
  26. ^ Roymans 2004, pp. 20, 56–58, 211, 227, 229.
  27. ^ Roymans 2004, p. 9.
  28. ^ Roymans, pp. 16–17.
  29. ^ van Rossum 2004, p. 115 counts 10 units, seeing the units described by Tacitus in Histories 4.16 and 4.18 as two different ones. Rosselaar, p. 150 counts these as one.
  30. ^ van Rossum 2004, p. 115.
  31. ^ van Rossum 2004, p. 118, Rosselaar, p. 151
  32. ^ van Rossum 2004, pp. 118–119.
  33. ^ van Rossum 2004, pp. 121–123.
  34. ^ van Rossum 2004, pp. 119, 120–121, Rosselaar, p. 151
  35. ^ Vegetius De re militari III.7
  36. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus XVI.11
  37. ^ Tacitus Agricola 18.3–5
  38. ^ Roymans 2004, pp. 144, 208, 244, 257.
  39. ^ Roymans 2004, pp. 232–233, 257–258.
  40. ^ a b Lanting & van de Plicht 2010, p. 55.
  41. ^ Roymans & Heeren 2021.
  42. ^ Dierkens & Périn 2003 p.168 citing Eumenius, Panegyric VIII(5) written about 298 AD.
  43. ^ "Zosimus, New History. London: Green and Chaplin (1814). Book 3". tertullian.org.
  44. ^ This section follows Simon Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age, (New York) 1987, ch. II "Patriotic Scripture", especially pp. 72 ff.
  45. ^ The Batavian Myth: A Study Pack from the Department of Dutch, University College London
  46. ^ I. Schöffer, "The Batavian myth during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries," in P. A. M. Geurts and A. E. M. Janssen, Geschiedschrijving in Nederland ('Gravenhage) 1981:84–109, noted by Schama 1987.
  47. ^ Knorr, Jacqueline (2014). Creole Identity in Postcolonial Indonesia. Volume 9 of Integration and Conflict Studies. Berghahn Books. p. 91. ISBN 9781782382690.
  48. ^ Beyen, Marnix (2000). "A Tribal Trinity: the Rise and Fall of the Franks, the Frisians and the Saxons in the Historical Consciousness of the Netherlands since 1850". European History Quarterly. 30 (4): 493–532. doi:10.1177/026569140003000402. ISSN 0265-6914. S2CID 145656182. Fulltext: EBSCO

Bibliography

edit

Further reading

edit
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)&oldid=1313493483"