This article addresses one of the most challenging problems in Islamic theology: the apparent contradiction between the divine promise "Allah does not burden a soul beyond what it can bear" (Quran 2:286) and the extreme suffering experienced by the innocent. Where traditional approaches fall short, this work proposes a new philosophical model called the "Theory of Spiritual Acceptance and Dynamic Balance." The theory defines worldly life as a "Dynamic Existential Theater Play" accepted by souls in advance, explaining how divine justice (...) operates through a revelatory equation encrypted with Huruf-u Muqatta'at. The most comprehensive form of this equation is formulated as: Elif−Laˉm(لا)≥(Ra^+Ṣaˉd)→Mı^m(م). This means: "The integrity of the Primordial Nature (Elif) with Divine Presence (Lām) is always greater than or equal to (≥) the sum of all internal (Ṣād) and external (Râ) spiritual burdens encountered, and this process of confrontation (→) leads the soul to a state of ultimate balance and meaning (Mîm)." The ≥ (greater than or equal to) operator is a critical mechanism of justice: Divine support not only ensures overcoming the difficulty (>) but also permanently updates the soul's capacity (=), making it stronger against similar future challenges. This "Dynamic Update Mechanism" guarantees the system's justice not only instantaneously but also cumulatively. (shrink)

The discrepancy between The Qur'anic principle, "And for every nation there is a warner" (The Qur'an, Fatir 35:24), and an overwhelming concentration of Abrahamic religions in the Middle East creates a significant philosophical problem concerning divine justice and the distribution of revelation. This article addresses this issue by presenting a new philosophical model, "The Seed Theory," by tracing the chronological flow of Qur'anic revelation. This terminology derives from likening the divine truth potential that Allah places in every human and society (...) to a "Seed"; while revelation is the process that germinates this Seed and transforms it into a final tree. According to the model, in the early stages of revelation, Allah sowed a "Seed of Monotheism" in every society and sent a warner to establish His universal justice. In the later stages of revelation, He chose Prophet Abraham, His most deserving servant who best germinated this Seed, as the "Root" of the "Tree of Revelation" which would leave an uninterrupted legacy for humanity. The main Trunk of the tree was entrusted to the Children of Israel through the prophets who were descended from Prophet Isaac and the divine scriptures and revelations sent to them. However, the societies to whom prophets descending from Prophet Isaac were sent, despite the unwavering guidance of their prophets, severed the branches of the tree, leading to societal corruptions contrary to the spirit of revelation. There was no deficiency in Prophet Isaac himself or the prophets sent to them; rather, the problem lay in the subsequent actions of these societies. In the final stage of revelation, the tree was completed with Prophet Muhammad, the last prophet from the lineage of Prophet Ishmael, and The Qur'an, with its absolute preservation being personally undertaken by Allah until the Day of Judgment. This model argues that the continuation of revelation through a single primary lineage is a consistent and effective solution that prevents potential systemic chaos for humanity and can be understood as a reflection of divine wisdom. The theory offers a new perspective on topics such as divine justice, free will, and the historicity of revelation, while also providing a constructive basis for contemporary interfaith dialogue. (shrink)

Abū Ishāq al-Ṣaffār was one of scholars of the Western Qarakhānids’ period who followed the Kalām thought of al-Māturīdī (d. 333/944). His theological works Talkhīs al-adilla and Risāla fī al-kalām, his method in kalām, and frequent reference to his works by Ottoman and Arab scholars indicate that al-Ṣaffār is a respected and authorative Māturīdī theologian. The article focuses on his defense of the kalām. By adding a long introduction to Talkhīs about the naming, importance, and religious legitimacy of the science (...) of kalām, Saffār asserted that the kalām should be learned. When systematical vindication of the science of kalām is examined, it is understood that al-Ṣaffār is the first theologian who reserved a private and voluminous part for defensing the kalām among Ḥanafī-Māturīdīs. Even though he does not state its systematic, it can be understood that vindication of kalām in al-Ṣaffār divides into three parts as of explanation, demonstration and refutation. Al-Ṣaffār’s defending the science of kalām shows that there were opposite thoughts against kalām in the 4th/10th and 5th/11th centuries throughout in Transoxania. In this period Aṣḥāb al-Ḥadīth and Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ were the opposite fronts of kalām. In addition, he was trying to go beyond the oppositions of Ḥanafī jurists. His vindication is consistent and has scholarly depth because it is able to be against a strong opposition. SUMMARY: Abū Ishāq Ibrahīm b. Ismāil Zāhid al-Ṣaffār al-Bukhārī is a scholar belonging to the Ḥanafī theological tradition which was improved by the contribution of Ḥanafī theologians who used thinking system of Abū Ḥanīfa (d. 150/767) as base and adopted Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī (d. 333/944) and his thoughts in historical process. The contents of his theological works Talkhīs al-adilla li-qawāʿid al-tawḥīd and Risāla fī al-Kalām, the method that he used, and references to his works made by Ottoman and Arab scholars indicate that he is an important Māturīdī theologian. The article focuses on his defense of the science of Kalām. In Talkhīs al-adilla, there are two sections including the subject of naming, and importance and necessity of Kalām discipline. Here, the necessity of learning Kalām and its value are defended in detail. Besides, rumors “Abū Ḥanīfa turned away from the science of Kalām in his doomsdays” and that “He prohibited to make occupation with Kalām completely” are evaluated. When systematical vindication of the science of Kalām is examined, it is understood that al-Ṣaffār is the first theologian who reserved a private and voluminous part for defensing the Kalām among Ḥanafī Māturīdīs. Even if Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī, Abū al-Yusr al-Bazdawī (d. 493/1100) and Abū Muʿīn al-Nasafī (d. 508/1115) defend that the science of Kalām is not wrong for religion; yet, the vindication of Kalām does not take a place under a separate title and in a detailed manner in any of Māturīdī theologians works. The method that al-Ṣaffār used when he is defending the science of Kalām, differs from strategy of Abū Ḥanīfa. While Abū Ḥanīfa has mentioned that there is a need for the science of Kalām under these new circumstances, al-Ṣaffār has defended theologians who were charged with being Ahl al-Bidaʿ, by trying to prove that the prophets especially the Prophet Ibrāhīm, even the Companions of the Prophet Muḥammad (Ṣaḥāba) and the Successors of the Companions (Tābiʿūn) scholars use their minds and make arguments in religious matters. In this respect, he emphasizes that the Qurʾān orders to think and discuss gently, not to be stay in silence: “And dispute with them, using what is best” (16.125-126). Therefore, he states that this discipline which took a mission to explain and defend the creed of Islam (ʿaqīda), cannot be characterized as an innovation (bidʿah) or illicit. His vindication method can be defined as a more developed type of method that Abu’l-Ḥasan al-Ash’arī’s (d. 324/935) used in Risāla fī istiḥsān al-khawḍ fī ʿilm al-kalām. Even though he does not state its systematic, it can be understood that vindication of Kalām in al-Ṣaffār divides into three parts as of explanation, demonstration and refutation: a) Explanation: Explaining the necessity and importance of the science of Kalām by giving information about its definition, names, value and place among other principles. b) Demonstration: Revealing the religious basics of the science of Kalām from the Qurʾān, the Sunna of the Prophet Muḥammad, the Companions of the Prophet, and the Successors of the Companions thus specifying that it is legitimate for religion. c) Refutation: Replying the claims having aim to weaken the value of Kalām principle and its religious legality. Al-Ṣaffār describes ‘the science of Kalām’ as ‘Knowing the Real with the evidences which help to reach the absolute information’. By allocating the concept of 'Ḥaqq', he repeats the definition of Kalām as “it is to know God with certain evidences” in a part of his work, and “it is to know the principles of religion (uṣūl al-dīn) with certain evidences” in another part. He describes Kalām as “Knowing ḥaqq / God / uṣūl al-dīn by depending on evidence”, and tries to prove that it is wrong to consider a science which performs the stated duty, as illicit and abominable and thus turn away from it. Al-Ṣaffār thinks that it is right to call this principle as ‘Kalām’ because of the certain evidences leading to the truth that this science has used. This thought was defended by other theologians as well. For example, according to Saʿd al-Dīn Masʿūd al-Taftazānī (d. 792/1310) it seems like to say “This is the word (kalām), not the other knowings” by the way of the power of evidences used in Kalām.Thus, it is appropriate to give name Kalām for this science which based on certain evidences. Al-Ṣaffār’s explanations revealed in scope of vindication of the Kalām are adopted by some of following scholars. Ḥusām al-Dīn al-Sighnāqī (d. 714/1314) in his book called al-Tasdīd sharḥ al-Tamhīd fī qawāʿid al-tawḥīd quotes Saffâr’s explanations as the same. Al-Ṣaffār indicates that the method told in the Qurʾān is to reply questions about religion, beliefs and rejection instead of remaining in silence. The duty taken on by Kalām is this vindication activity performed by the prophets whose examples are described in the Qurʾān and which is legal and demanded. His way of thinking and vindication of the Kalām resembles that of Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī. Al-Māturīdī says, “Prophets and we were ordered to invite infidels to Islam. When this invitation happens, the respondents will ask for evidence and explanation, and discussion will be inevitable. Therefore, discussing and talking about subjects of Kalām is not objectionable”. Thoughts of al-Māturīdī and al-Ṣaffār regarding the vindication of the Kalām were repeated by Nūr al-Dīn al-Ṣābūnī (d. 580/1184), and Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (d. 606/1210) later. According to al-Ṣābūnī, the evidences put against deniers and especially the discussion made by the Prophet Ibrāhīm to defend his own belief, prove the legality of Kalām discipline. Likewise, according to al-Rāzī, the duty of Kalām is just an activity performed already in the Qurʾān and ordered to the prophets. At this point of view, since the prophets were leading to Kalām, banning this activity is nonsense. According to al-Ṣaffār, the reason for why Abu Hanifa avoids his son Hammād from these discussions is that Abu Hanifa does not like discussions based on obstinate. Otherwise, it cannot be that Abū Ḥanīfa prohibits to learn Kalām and make discussion about Kalām. According to him, this behavior of Abū Ḥanīfa results from that people discussing with him are ignorant about the subject of Kalām, discussion turns to an obstinate, and coming to an end of discussion seems impossible. This comment of al-Ṣaffār is quoted in Miftāḥ al-saʿāda wa-miṣbāḥ al-siyāda by ʿIṣām al-Dīn Aḥmed b. Muṣṭafā Tashköprüzāde (d. 968/1561) and in Minaḥ al-rawḍ al-azhar fī sharḥ al-Fiqh al-akbar by ʿAlī b. Sulṭān Muḥammad al-Qārī (d. 1014/1606) as same as his words. Al-Ṣaffār’s defending the science of Kalām shows that there were opposite thoughts against Kalām in the 4th/10th and 5th/11th centuries throughout in Transoxania.In this period Aṣḥāb al-Ḥadīth and Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ were the opposite fronts of Kalām. In addition, he was trying to go beyond the oppositions of Ḥanafī jurists (fuqahāʾ). Because some of the Ḥanafī jurists thought that Abū Ḥanīfa forsook occupation with the science of Kalām and even he prohibited his son to have interest in this discipline. But some of Ḥanafī theologians such as al-Māturīdī, al-Nasafī and al-Ṣaffār protested this thought which describes Abū Ḥanīfa as a banner for Kalām. His vindication is consistent and has scholarly depth because it is able to be against a strong opposition. His book Talkhīs al-adilla li-qawāʿid al-tawḥīd is a unique source in terms of containing vindication of the Kalām in detail and also influencing the approaches of the next period scholars. (shrink)

This article explores the essence of the human (insān) as it is understood in Twelver Shīʿī philosophy and mysticism. It presents a Shīʿī philosophical elucidation regarding the possible existence of extraterrestrial intelligent lifeforms and what their relationship with “humanhood” might be. This line of reasoning is presented with a general sketch of how, in Shīʿī Islamic thought, a “human being” is characterized by specific traits and the relationship of human beings with the archetype of the Perfect Human (al‐Insān al‐Kāmil). Following (...) this is a review of Shīʿī Imāmī traditions regarding extraterrestrial intelligent life and the plurality of worlds. This sequence ultimately allows for a unique analysis of humanhood according to the Shīʿī philosophical viewpoint and helps determine if the term “human” can be used for other intelligent beings with similar ontological features and intelligence levels. (shrink)

William Lane Craig has argued that the Qur’anic conception of God is morally deficient because it lacks universal and unconditional love, which he regards as an essential attribute of a morally perfect being. On this basis, he concludes that Allah, as portrayed in the Qur’an, cannot be identified with the God of biblical Christianity. This article critically examines that claim through a comparative textual analysis of the Qur’an, the Old Testament, and the New Testament. This study engages philosophical theology through (...) a textually grounded approach, evaluating Craig’s criterion of divine love by analysing how love, mercy, justice, and moral differentiation are articulated within the scriptural texts themselves. It argues that the Qur’an presents divine love as a relational and morally evaluative affirmation, while divine mercy, grace, and beneficence extend broadly to all creation, including unbelievers. The article further demonstrates that this moral structure closely parallels the Old Testament depiction of God, where divine love is covenantal and evaluative and divine judgement is explicitly affirmed. Even within the New Testament, divine love consistently coexists with judgement, accountability, and conditionality. The study concludes that unconditional universal love cannot serve as a decisive theological criterion for assessing divine moral perfection, and that the Qur’anic conception of Allah remains compatible with biblical monotheism when evaluated on shared scriptural grounds. (shrink)

Since the spread of Islam in Transoxiana (Mā-warāʾ al-Nahr), religious understandings based on the opinions of Abū Ḥanīfa (d. 150/767) have always been dominant in the region. Therefore, it was not possible for other understandings, which may seem to be opposite to Abū Ḥanīfa’s opinions, to be influential in the region. That Najjāriyya and Karrāmiyya could not be perennial in the region may be an example of this case. Similarly, Māturīdiyya, which benefited from Abū Ḥanīfa’s treatises of creed and his (...) rational method, could not adequately get the support of people at the time of Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī (d. 333/944) and Abū l-Muʿīn al-Nasafī (d. 508/1114) because the school was seen as an opposite approach to the prevailing imaginations about Abū Ḥanīfa. Moreover, the Ḥanafī jurists (Ḥanafī fuqahāʾ), who were influential in not only people but also bureaucracy, and the Ḥanafī theologians (Ḥanafī mutakallimūn), who followed al-Māturīdī’s theological method, did not come to terms on their interpretations of Abū Ḥanīfa. The Ḥanafī jurists who benefited mostly from juridical sources and manāqibworks were thinking different from the Ḥanafī theologians who relied on the treatises of Abū Ḥanīfa on such issues as the legitimacy of Kalām as a scholarly discipline, the responsibility of people of fatra(ahl al-fatra: people having no access to the message of Islam), and the creation of faith (īmān). The Ḥanafī jurists took different stance on various issues and argued that faith is not created; the informative (khabarī) attributes of God (ṣifāt Allāh) mentioned in the Qurʾān cannot be interpreted (taʾwīl); no one can be held accountable for faith only based on the intellect unless the message of the Prophet reaches to her or him; the people of fatracannot be responsible for faith. They also stated that Abū Ḥanīfa broke his relationship with the theological (kalāmī) issues in the last years of his life. Although these jurists accepted Abū Ḥanīfa’s distinction between faith and deeds and his view of the stability of one’s faith without increasing or decreasing they condemned theological discussions on these issues by going beyond the limits of the treatise of creed. While the Ḥanafī theologians known as the Ḥanafī scholars of Samarqand who adopted the religious views of Imām al-Māturīdī of Samarqand acknowledged the intellect and considered it as an independent source in religion, the Ḥanafī jurists known as the Ḥanafī scholars of Bukhārāauthorized the intellect only in understanding the transmission (naql) and its interpretation. The different opinions of the two groups can be seen clearly on the question of the religious responsibility of the people of fatra. When we look at the debates regarding Kalām and the Islamic law, we can see that the difference between these two cities (Samarqand and Bukhārā) stems from their methodological views on the epistemological values of the reason (ʿaql) and the transmission (tradition). Māturīdiyya is a school of theology established by the Ḥanafī theologians who upheld the necessity and significance of Kalām. It is possible to say that the Ḥanafī jurists did not contribute to the establishment and systematisation of this school; rather, they tried to prevent it. Our findings show that the Ḥanafī jurists who lived in Transoxiana differ from each other because of their different understandings of Abū Ḥanīfa. In the historical process extending today it is evident that the religious views of the Ḥanafī jurists and their interpretation of Abū Ḥanīfa have been prominent and effective, not that of Māturīdiyya, which is the understanding of the Ḥanafī theologians. (shrink)

After the belief in Allah and in the necessities of His religion, the first of our duties towards Him is to learn our responsibilities as an ‘abd [servant] and worshipping according to His will. Worship is to do what Allah commands and not to do what He prohibits. Worship is legislated by Allah and His Prophet. Thus, the unity and solidarity in worship is achieved. Some reasons and causes for worships are known however the main purpose of worshipping is to (...) serve Allah. Not all the worships are bound with a standard reward scale. Allah has put some standard reward scales as a result of His grace and blessings on His servants. The most common of these is ten-to-one. Worships like az-Zakah [obligatory charity] and as-Sadaqa [voluntary charity] are given seven hundreds -to-one or more reward. Iḥyaʾ Laylat al-Qadr (keeping vigil in that night) is equal to worshipping in a thousand months. In addition, there are unlimited and uncounted blessings in this World and in the hereafter. Also the reward of the worships (like prayer, fasting, giving charity and pilgrimage) is determined by Allah and is subjected to special reward scales. He is who determines the worships and their rewards. One of the greatest blessings of Allah to His slaves is Tawbah [repentance from sins] which means a chance for human beings to make themselves forgiven. Also there is ar-Riya’ [showing off, insincerity] which annuls the worship and limits its reward to this World only. (shrink)

In the Quran, as well as the belief in tawhid -which means the oneness of Allah in terms of divinity, omnipotency and creating-, belief in the prophets and in the afterlife also have an important place. He who believes in the prophet must also believe in what he conveys. And he who does not believe in the prophet is not accepted within the religion. People need prophets. Finding Allah only through reason can’t save man from responsibility. After finding Allah by (...) the help of his reason, the human being must know the necessities of that belief from its revelational sources and fulfill them. In this respect, sending prophets to the mankind is a divine favor and a blessing from Allah. Allah sent countless prophets during the history as a result of His grace. On the other hand there are deists who believe in Allah but do not accept the possibility of prophethood, revelation and miracles. With an over reliance, they claim that they also deny the necessity of prophethood by using a mathematical inference. Islam is a reasonable religion. But yet, in this study we will try to prove that it is not right to understand all issues related to Islam within the scope of strict rules of reason and logic. One of these issues is the prophecy. (shrink)

This article explores the multifaceted Roman concept of virtus through the lens of Cicero’s philosophical and rhetorical works. Far from being a mere synonym for "virtue" in the modern moral sense, virtus in the Roman context encapsulated ideals of courage, public service, moral integrity, and masculine excellence, all framed within the civic and martial values of the Roman Republic. By examining Cicero’s usage of virtus across texts such as De Officiis, De Re Publica, and his orations, this study traces how (...) he negotiated traditional Roman ideals with the philosophical doctrines of the Hellenistic schools, particularly Stoicism. It argues that Cicero positioned virtus not only as a personal moral quality but also as a political imperative—essential for the preservation of the res publica. In doing so, he helped shape a Roman moral identity that would resonate throughout Western political thought. The article aims to deepen our understanding of how linguistic and philosophical interpretation of key Roman values contributed to broader ideological frameworks in antiquity. (shrink)

This essay investigates the jurisprudential philosophy of the ‘nomian esoteric’ strand within the early Jaʿfarī school, focusing on the constructed image of the Imām as presented by esoteric thinkers. Through a close reading of select Shiʿi ḥadīths, I explore this image of the Imām as the bearer of legislative authority (al-walāya al-tashrīʿiyya), whose rulings are shaped by both epistemic and pedagogical concerns. The essay contextualizes the Imām’s rejection of qiyās (analogical reasoning) and his issuance of varied rulings within broader Jaʿfarī (...) concepts such as dissimulation (taqiyya) and intellectual accommodation (kalām ʿalā qadr ʿuqūl al-nās). Drawing on these traditions, I present the nomian esoteric image of the Imām as a legal demiurge and proto-Uṣūlī thinker who articulates a meta-ethical framework akin to Platonic Moral Realism and Realist Particularism. Finally, I trace the transformation of Jaʿfarī jurisprudence following the Major Occultation, identifying a marked shift in legal epistemology and interpretive authority. Access options. (shrink)

This article questions the Trust (Amanah) proposition doctrine of classical Islamic theology through a central epistemological argument: The sole basis asserted for our supposed acceptance of the Trust—the observation that we possess intellect and free will—is not independent evidence but a circular deduction derived from the design itself. This acceptance can never be verified in any way. A system of divine trial (imtihan) based on unverifiable consent faces a severe epistemic and moral legitimacy crisis. The article explores this fundamental argument (...) in seven stages: (1) separating the circular evidence fallacy into two independent branches; (2) analyzing the four-layered structure of epistemic inaccessibility; (3) establishing, through a distinct argument resistant to Ash'ari voluntarism and Maturidi husn/qubh (good/evil) objections, why epistemic inaccessibility is a condition that severs moral bindingness; (4) evaluating whether the doctrines of the Realm of the Covenant (Misak) and primordial nature (Fitrah) resolve these issues, including the problem of trans-temporal personal identity; (5) explaining why the minimum conditions necessary for the legitimacy of the trial cannot be structurally met; (6) a systematic evaluation of standard Kalam objections; (7) clarifying the methodological status of the analytical framework utilized. (shrink)

This essay presents a novel perspective on animal pain experience within philosophical discussions of consciousness and theological ethical frameworks. Our central thesis argues for a qualitative distinction between animals' conscious sensory experience of pain (nociceptive awareness) and their cognitive and conceptual "knowing" of pain (reflective awareness). While acknowledging that animals experience pain through sensory responses and that this experience has a conscious dimension, we contend that they may lack the cognitive capacity to process pain conceptually, to reflect upon it, and (...) to integrate it into a coherent autobiographical narrative, as humans do. Developmental psychology and neurobiological findings suggest that animal pain experience resembles that of human infants: an immediate and reactive conscious experience, but devoid of reflective consciousness. Specifically, considering that human infants, despite their highly advanced cognitive capacities such as language acquisition, do not "know" their infant pains, it becomes even more plausible that animals do not "know" pain in the same way. This distinction has significant implications for theological questions concerning Divine justice and the afterlife; as animals are exempt from eschatological responsibility, this suggests a model of pain experience more consistent with Divine justice. This thesis strongly emphasizes that causing pain to animals is ethically wrong and reinforces our obligation to protect them; it is fully aligned with the concerns raised by animal rights advocates and in no way justifies cruelty. (shrink)

This study philosophically examines the logical tension between the central claims of Islamic theology—God’s attributes of absolute omnipotence, absolute omniscience, justice, wisdom, and mercy—and the manner in which sacred texts have been transmitted to and preserved for humanity. The article is structured upon two main axes: the first axis is the attack argument, asserting that the current divine strategy (multiple texts and a chain of prophets) creates severe tensions with divine attributes; the second axis is the defense argument, attempting to (...) demonstrate how these tensions can be coherently explained. The core of the attack argument is as follows: A Creator who has performed miracles that do not abrogate free will, such as the splitting of the moon and the parting of the sea, could have established sacred texts in a similarly miraculous and unifying manner. Despite this, the preference for a strategy that paved the way for religious divisions and centuries of bloody conflict creates a serious tension with divine attributes. The core of the defense argument is this: Coherent explanations for these tensions exist in terms of the validity of the testing system, its high level of difficulty, and the preservation of human dignity; furthermore, the possibility that systemic difficulties were known by the soul during the offering of the Trust (Emanet) strengthens these explanations. (shrink)

This essay investigates the jurisprudential philosophy of the ‘nomian esoteric’ strand within the early Jaʿfarī school, focusing on the constructed image of the Imām as presented by esoteric thinkers. Through a close reading of select Shiʿi ḥadīths, I explore this image of the Imām as the bearer of legislative authority (al-walāya al-tashrīʿiyya), whose rulings are shaped by both epistemic and pedagogical concerns. The essay contextualizes the Imām’s rejection of qiyās (analogical reasoning) and his issuance of varied rulings within broader Jaʿfarī (...) concepts such as dissimulation (taqiyya) and intellectual accommodation (kalām ʿalā qadr ʿuqūl al-nās). Drawing on these traditions, I present the nomian esoteric image of the Imām as a legal demiurge and proto-Uṣūlī thinker who articulates a meta-ethical framework akin to Platonic Moral Realism and Realist Particularism. Finally, I trace the transformation of Jaʿfarī jurisprudence following the Major Occultation, identifying a marked shift in legal epistemology and interpretive authority. (shrink)

This theoretical study, integrating phenomenological and interdisciplinary perspectives, posits that the rhythmic movements of Islamic prayer (Salat) are not merely spiritual disciplines but also a biomechanical practice designed to optimize the human being's innate (Fitra) neurobiological balance mechanisms. Drawing on current literature from postural control, electromyography (EMG), and electroencephalography (EEG), this paper analyzes how Salat's movements—such as Qiyam, Ruku, and Sujud— may enhance proprioception, vestibular function, and autonomic nervous system regulation. By framing the prayer experience through Merleau-Ponty's concept of the (...) 'body-subject,' the study argues that Salat functions as a neurobiological 'calibration' practice. Finally, a methodological framework for future empirical research is proposed to test this hypothesis. (shrink)

This article aims to re-ground ontological monism through the thesis of the All Encompassing Nature of Allah’s Will. Proceeding from the inference that Reality is logically and necessarily one (monistic), it is asserted that Reality is from the essence (zât) of Allah. While clearly maintaining the distinction between the Creator and the created, this ontology argues that created beings require a necessary reality in order to exist, whereas Allah possesses this in His own Essence and is therefore not bound by (...) anything. All realms and our universe are sustained by Allah’s will. The article posits that matter is a condensed state of Will and that time operates on the plane of the "Eternal Now" (Nunc Stans). Asserting that all realms such as Heaven, Hell, and the Earth exist as different perceptual modes (Hardware Difference) within a single Reality, this model brings a contemporary approach to existential issues. (shrink)

This article reveals how popular arguments suggesting the universe might be a simulation contradict the principles of divine judgment and moral responsibility, particularly within the context of Islamic theology. It is argued that the simulation hypothesis is theologically untenable because (1) actions in an unreal realm cannot be judged in a real realm, and (2) such a scenario would require a conception of a Creator who misleads beings about the nature of existence. As a solution to these problems, the "One (...) Reality, Different Hardware" model is presented. According to this model, angels, jinn, humans, and all other created beings exist not in separate or hierarchical layers of reality, but on a single, unified ontological plane that originates from the Essence (Zat) of Allah and is sustained by His encompassing will. The fundamental difference among them lies in the differences in the biological and spiritual "hardware" they possess to perceive and experience this single reality, and in the capacity of the soul utilizing this hardware. This perspective explains why our moral actions are real and judicable, while allowing us to reinterpret the afterlife as a "hardware upgrade" that brings us one step closer to the Kantian "noumenon.". (shrink)

This article challenges the prevailing notion of feminist freedom rooted in individual choice, influenced by neoliberal ideology. While choice is integral, it argues for a broader perspective acknowledging systemic inequalities shaping women's options. Highlighting the flawed promises of neoliberalism, it discusses how economic disparities and workplace discrimination hinder genuine choice. It advocates for policies promoting economic justice, workplace equality, and reproductive rights as essential for feminist freedom. Ultimately, it calls for collective action to dismantle barriers and create a society where (...) all women have the genuine power to shape their lives. (shrink)

This article examines a fundamental paradox faced by the atheist worldview: the contradiction of taking a strong stance against injustice while rejecting the metaphysical mechanisms that would make absolute justice possible. The study proves that this irresolvable contradiction supports the belief in a single God with both negative (atheist inconsistency) and positive (monopoly of revelation) arguments. The article analyzes two main arguments: (1) the thesis of "the acceptance of absolute injustice" as a logical consequence of the atheist position, and (2) (...) the evidence for the existence of metaphysical powers through the phenomenon of monopoly in the tradition of revelation. The research supports this hypothesis by using historical analysis of revelation, the theory of power dynamics, and an epistemological approach that updates beliefs with evidence. (shrink)

This paper explores the philosophical debate on where the burden of proof lies between the theist and atheist. It argues that theism should be considered the default epistemic position due to its self-evident and crosscultural nature, and that atheism, by negating this foundational claim, inherits the obligation to provide counter-evidence. Drawing on legal analogies, epistemological principles, psychological studies, and Islamic concepts like fitrah, the author demonstrates that belief in God is not only natural but justified by default. The work also (...) analyzes common misconceptions regarding agnosticism, positive/negative claims, and compares the existence of God with mythical analogies like unicorns, showing these comparisons to be philosophically weak. Contrary to the popular narrative where atheists often demand evidence from theists, this paper argues that theism is a default, self-evident position. Extensive quotations from renowned scholars and scientific studies are incorporated to strengthen the claim. (shrink)

This paper explores the moral imperatives that shape ethical behavior, emphasizing the necessity of ethical conduct for both societal cohesion and personal well-being. Drawing on classical and contemporary philosophical thought, the paper critiques systemic injustices—particularly the exploitation of the working class under capitalism—and the ways in which power structures manipulate societal conflict to obscure their role in sustaining inequality. The study introduces the “Principle of Ethical Necessity,” a multi-staged ethical framework that accounts for causality, proportionality, unavoidability, and systemic impact in (...) ethical decision-making. The argument asserts that while there is no objective morality, a rigorous ethical methodology can guide moral actions, particularly in complex scenarios such as the trolley problem, medical ethics, and justifiable revolution. The paper further develops the concept of “Semi-Objective Suffering” (SOS), which distinguishes between imposed subjective suffering and collectively acknowledged suffering, providing a more reliable ethical metric. The work also considers the moral legitimacy of revolutionary actions, proposing a framework where systemic overhauls are justified only under strict conditions, such as the failure of peaceful alternatives, the integrity of revolutionary motives, and the proportionality of harm to long-term benefits. The conclusion reinforces the idea that ethical action requires discernment, integrity, and accountability—both in personal decision-making and in the pursuit of justice. The consequences of unethical action, it argues, are not just societal but deeply personal, shaping the individual’s moral self-conception. (shrink)

The purpose of this Glossary of Terms is to help novice researchers in understanding basic research terminologies in educational research. It provides definitions of many of the terms used in the guidebooks to conducting qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods of research. The terms are arranged in alphabetical order.

The current study is a non-empirical research attempting to explore the key issues contributing to the dropout of girls from schools in Afghanistan. The paper first provides a historical background where the education of girls in the country has always been challenged. The study also explores a few studies conducted in the neighboring countries of Afghanistan where girls’ education is facing similar challenges causing to their dropout from schools. Subsequently, specific challenges, such as cultural, economic, insecurity, and school related challenges (...) have been identified as the main challenges toward the education of girls in Afghanistan. Finally, a number of recommendation have been proposed at the end of the paper, implementing of which might be useful for the status of girls’ education in the country. (shrink)

Academic Writing is a core subject that undergraduate students take during their four years of study. However, many students find the subject challenging. Several studies have been conducted to explore the difficulties students face, yet in Afghanistan, little to no research is available. Hence, this project is a small attempt to address this gap. This research aims to look into the difficulties of undergraduate English major students face in Academic Writing. The writing difficulties were investigated in terms of content, structure, (...) and language. A quantitative descriptive method was employed for this study, and a questionnaire was given to 121 undergraduate degree students from the English Department at Kabul University. The research data were analyzed using SPSS. The research findings revealed that the students faced several challenges in Academic Writing in terms of language, structure, and content. Finally, some recommendations to overcome the difficulties and suggestions for future research are provided. (shrink)

In this article, we develop the intersection of Shīʿī Islamic philosophy and extraterrestrial life. We explain the view of Ḥukamā (Islamic Philosophers) and what implications it holds for asserting a plurality of worlds and life forms. In addition to this, we bring Shīʿī hadīth sources which also suggest the existence of other life forms outside the earth. Combining the philosophical and textual evidence, we argue that the Shīʿī school not only suggests the existence of extraterrestrial life but also provides a (...) potential framework for possible human-extraterrestrial interactions. (shrink)

The geology of Khanozai area is comprised of Indian Platform Sediments, the Suture Zone and Flysch Zone. The Khanozai Ophiolite Complex is a fragment of Zhob Valley ophiolites is marking the Suture Zone in the area and consists of mantle peridotite overlain by crustal ultramafic to mafic cumulate which is underlain by metamorphic sole rocks and mélange. The crustal section of the ophiolite comprises of both ultramafic to mafic cumulates. Ultramafic cumulates comprise repeated successions of dunite, pyroxenite and wehrlite while (...) mafic cumulates consist of foliated to layered gabbros. The Khanozai gabbros cover about 60% area of the crustal plutonic rocks and have a lower transitional contact with the ultramafic cumulates. The gabbros (sensu lato) are classified as olivine gabbro, gabbronorite, olivine gabbronorite, norite and gabbro. The mineralogy of the gabbros indicates that they have both primitive and evolved components. The geochemistry indicates that the Khanozai gabbros are tholeiitic in nature and comprise both cumulate and non-cumulate mineral phases with olivine, pyroxenes and plagioclase being involved in fractionation. The cyclic series of ultramafic cumulates and gabbros has a different order, thickness, and structure in the crustal part of ophiolite and this possibly results from a variable supply of different magma compositions to the chamber. The structure of Khanozai Ophiolite’ crustal section, with a well-developed plutonic sequence and absence of sheeted dyke indicate that these rocks may have formed in a tectonic setting with a slow spreading rate over different periods of time as a consequence of episodic low magma supply rates. These gabbros may have formed in a similar manner to the Semail Ophiolite’ gabbros and imply that a well-developed ophiolitic sequence is rarely formed in a tectonic setting where the spreading and magma supply rates are not balanced. (shrink)

The English language is immensely rich in terms of vocabulary. When learning vocabulary, successful students employ specific strategies. Several studies have been conducted to explore the vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) English language learners employ. However, there is a lack of empirical research on the topic in Afghanistan. Therefore, the aims of this study were to 1) explore the VLS undergraduate English learners employ; 2) examine the correlation between VLS and gender; 3) examine the correlation between VLS and students’ year of (...) studies; and 4) examine the correlation between VLS and students’ English proficiency level. The study used a descriptive-quantitative research design. The study discovered that metacognitive and memory strategies were the most frequently used, while social strategies were the least frequently used. Moreover, the correlation results revealed that metacognitive strategies were more prevalent among males, while memory strategies were more popular among females. (shrink)

The advent of digital games in language classrooms has ushered in a new era of interactive and dynamic learning experiences. Among these platforms, Kahoot stands out as an engaging and entertaining gaming platform, capturing the attention of both instructors and students. Despite the previous studies on the impact of Kahoot on language learning motivation, they have predominantly focused on assessing the effects of Kahoot before and after instruction overlooking direct comparisons with traditional instructional methods. Consequently, the present study utilized a (...) quasi-experimental research design, and participants were divided into two groups: an experimental group that received instruction using Kahoot, and a control group that followed traditional instructional methods. This research design allowed for a direct comparison of the impact of Kahoot on students’ motivation to learn the language. The results revealed a significant positive impact of Kahoot on students’ motivation to learn English. The students perceived Kahoot as engaging and enjoyable, resulting in heightened enthusiasm and interest inlanguage learning. These findings highlight the transformative potential of Kahoot as a catalyst for enhancing language learning motivation. Integrating Kahoot and other innovative online platforms into EFL instruction can create dynamic, interactive learning environments that foster student engagement and motivation. (shrink)

Many studies have been conducted to investigate the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in ESL and EFL contexts, but those conducted in EFL context, have reported that the application of CLT was challenging. Still, as far as the Afghan EFL context is concerned, there is a lack of empirical research investigating the issue. Hence, the purpose of this study is to explore afghan EFL lecturers’ perceived challenges in practicing CLT. The study also aims to examine if there is any (...) significant relationship among teachers use of CLT, the perceived challenges, and their demographic profiles. This study uses a quantitative research approach in which a survey questionnaire was given to EFL lecturers teaching in a public university. The results of the study revealed that the EFL lecturers had positive perceptions of using CLT activities, as there were evidence of a number of major CLT activities conducted in their classrooms. The results also revealed that they faced certain challenges that prevented them from implementing CLT effectively. Furthermore, significant correlation was found between students’ related challenges and teachers’ perceptions of using CLT; however, no significant correlations were found among teachers’ demographic profiles and CLT perceived challenges. This research is significant since it could be used as a resource presenting a comprehensive picture of CLT implementation in EFL classrooms in Afghanistan. (shrink)

This article introduces morphological typology, exploring the patterns and structures underlying word formation and grammatical encoding across languages. A systematic literature review examines fundamental concepts, including distinctions between analytic and synthetic languages, features of agglutinating, fusional, and inflectional morphologies, and phenomena like suppletion and polysynthetic structures. Readers gain insights into language classification based on morphological characteristics, challenging strict categorical distinctions and emphasizing the continuum across types. The study highlights the diversity and complexity of morphological systems. Suppletion, where stems are irregularly (...) replaced in inflectional patterns, and polysynthetic languages, encoding entire sentences within single complex words, are explored in depth. This work offers a concise overview of morphological typology by synthesizing reputable sources, including books, journals, and online resources. It is an accessible resource for language learners, linguists, and anyone interested in understanding the intricate morphological underpinnings of human language. (shrink)

Religious experience is one of the fundamental problems of the philosophy of religion. Although it has entered the literature as a proof of God; discussions focus on its nature. The basic approaches to the nature of religious experience are: religious experience as a feeling, religious experience as a perception, religious experience as a comment. The main reason that makes the nature of religious experience controversial is that it consists of two concepts that have a wide range of meaning, such as (...) religion and experience. The meanings that individuals and traditions attach to these two concepts determine the understanding of religious experience. The beginning of religious experience as a term corresponds to the periods of Protestantism. With the emphasis of Enlightenment on the mind, the meanings attributed to religious experience have been reduced and narrowed. In the literature, religious experience is unclear, cannot be transferred to others, instant and extraordinary experiences. The preliminary acceptance of this article is that the meanings attributed to the term religious experience are narrowed and it is wrong to use the term in the same sense for different traditions. This article assumes that the reader knows the current discussion of the problem. Rather than reacting to the concerns of current debate, it takes a more proactive and pre-opener approach. Rather than reacting to the concerns of the current debate, it takes a more proactive approach to the subject. This paper will present a different reading of religious experience than the literature as a problem of the Philosophy of Religion. In this context, the concept of God, universe and human being in al-Ghazali will be firstly revealed as the ontological background of religious experience; then a description of the concept of religious experience will be proposed on this ontological basis. If you mean an experience related to religion, which is within religious boundaries with religious experience; Islam for a Muslim, that all experiences that cater to all aspects of human existence and religious boundaries cannot be the person to enter into any human experience that is experienced throughout the religious life. Certainly, here we can talk about the experiences that religion has ordered and forbidden, or in other words, experiences that religion regards as positive or negative. If an experience related to God is meant for religious experience, here are two cases: when the truth comes to the essence and attributes of God, the human experience does not reach there and in this sense, a religious experience is not possible. If the acts of God are mentioned; all the experiences that people live in are religious in this sense, because everything outside of their own is a deed of God, and whatever happens in the world of being, takes place within God's deeds. Here, too, whether or not people are aware of it, can be mentioned in other words, from conscious and unconscious religious experiences, which is the deciding factor. Faith, then, can be regarded as the first step of the conscious religious experience. If you are referring to experiences that seem to be unusual for those who are religious and have no religious experience, it is an extraordinary experience to go on a journey itself, compared to not going on a journey. That is to say, the faith itself, which is to ascend to a journey to perfection, is an extraordinary experience compared to those who are not on this path, that is, those who do not have it. For instance for children, the experiences of the elders are extraordinary, and therefore being ordinary and extraordinary is a relative concept. It is necessary to acknowledge the differences in conscious religious experiences mentioned above in the meaning of intense and deep living in themselves. There is a deeper and more intense experience that expresses progress in a journey that leads to God in the sense of the strengthening of faith. This is the kind of experience that most people have not experienced in this sense that the task of the person who is experienced in his own journey is not to stick to them and continue on their way. So living out of order for a Muslim is seen as a barrier that must be encountered and which should not be lingered on, while experiencing something extraordinary has a distinctive place for religious experience in current debates. The issue is not that they cannot be explained but they are not deliberately explained due to the fear of misunderstanding. This can be regarded as a method of education that older adults use to train minors. As a result, if we would define a religious experience according to al-Ghazali, we can say that religion is a journey made towards God, and religious experience is the experience of traveling to God. Traveling to him means to get close to Him, but this approach is not in spatial means but in perfection means. So, religious experience is the journey to perfection of the man himself. Man's perfection is to have the attributes of God who have absolute perfection. These attributes are present in man's own essence. What a person must do, is to place an effort to make these virtual adjectives real. This journey is basically an existential necessity as it provides the happiness that is essential to human existence. In this journey, which can be understood as becoming a human being who was born as a human being. It should also be added that it is not possible to be absolutely perfect and to reach the reality of God himself in this endless journey of perfection. Therefore, the absolute perfection belongs to God, and it is necessary to understand the concept of perfect human being as a person who has traveled in the journey to perfection. (shrink)

These days, Thin-client devices are continuously accessing the Internet to perform/receive diversity of services in the cloud. However these devices might either has lack in their capacity (e.g., processing, CPU, memory, storage, battery, resource allocation, etc) or in their network resources which is not sufficient to meet users satisfaction in using Thin-client services. Furthermore, transferring big size of Big Data over the network to centralized server might burden the network, cause poor quality of services, cause long respond delay, and inefficient (...) use of network resources. To solve this issue, Thinclient devices such as smart mobile device should be connected to edge computing which is a localized near to user location and more powerful to perform computing or network resources. In this paper, we introduce a new method that constructs its architecture on Thin-client -edge computing collaboration. Furthermore, present our new strategy for optimizing big data distribution in cloud computing. Moreover, we propose algorithm to allocate resources to meet Service Level Agreement (SLA) and Quality of Service (QoS) requirements. Our simulation result shows that our proposed approach can improve resource allocation efficiently and shows better performance than other existing methods. (shrink)

Al-Ghazali's human understanding can be considered from two perspectives. The first of these is being born as a human, and the second is to be human in the sense of fulfilling the requirements of human nature. The main factor that determines this distinction is the existence of a special effort of the person. This article deals with the being born as a human part of al-Ghazali's human understanding. In other words, the subject of the essay is the place of man (...) among other beings, the powers, and faculties that he potentially possesses. According to al-Ghazali, beings are consist of the God and the acts of God. God is unique with his essence and attributes. His actions are called the world. Every action gives information about the actor. God is known through the world and the world is created for it. The human being consist of body and spirit. His body belongs to the world of things, and his spirit belongs to God. He has a special place in the world. He was created as a summary of the world. He understands the world at this point, and this understanding leads him to God. Human possesses angelic and animal characteristics. On this count, he has the potential to rise to the highest level of the angel from the lowest level of the animal. (shrink)

The purpose of this article is to reveal al-Ghazali's understanding of God and world on the ontological basis. He bases the purpose of existence of the world with to know God. In such a study, it is difficult to distinguish ontology from epistemology. Al-Ghazali classifies beings in different perspectives. However, all beings consist of the God and acts of God. God is a unique entity, which is compulsory, source of existence and sacred. His adjectives are with him. God is completely (...) different from what he created. Creatures cannot fully grasp it. God is not far from the world, but he is very close to his servants. The world is everything outside of God and his attributes. All beings are acts of God. The world owes its existence and continuation to God. The world that is the act of the God actually introduces us to the God. The purpose of the creation of the world is to introduce God. (shrink)

Code-switching is explained as switching between two languages at the same time while conversing in the same discourse. The aim of this study is to explore the perceptions of Afghan EFL lecturers toward code- switching. This study used a qualitative research approach in which the data was collected via semi-structured interviews with five EFL lecturers. The lecturers were interviewed to explore their perceptions and reasons for code-switching, and the extent to which they practice code-switching in their classrooms. The results revealed (...) that the lecturers in the study had positive perceptions of code-switching and believed it as a beneficial strategy in facilitating the learning process. However, they also conveyed that an excessive practice of code-switching should be avoided. The study results also disclosed that the lecturers practiced code-switching for various functions such as explaining difficult concepts (translation), explaining complex grammatical points, clarifications, and giving instructions. Finally, the paper provides recommendation for further research. (shrink)

The current study is conducted with the aim to explore the practices and perceptions of Afghan EFL lecturers toward assessment. A second aim of the study is to explore the challenges the lecturers encounter in the implementation of formative assessments in their classes. To serve these basic objectives, a qualitative case study method design was employed with three English language lectures as the participants. Semi-structured interviews were used as the main instrument to collect data. The findings of the study indicated (...) that all three lecturers maintained positive perceptions toward formative assessment and favored it over summative assessment. However, the study also discovered that the lecturers practice summative assessments more than formative assessments in their classrooms. This, as indicated by the lecturers, was due to the fact that their choices of employing certain assessment practices were dictated in terms of certain challenges such as university rules and policies, large classes, and time constraints. Lastly, some suggestions are made that may prove useful to effectively apply formative assessment in Afghan EFL context. (shrink)

Religious experience has been one of the most popular topics of the philosophy of religion in the last century. In the most general sense, it is "the experience of meeting with the holy." This phenomenon is as old as human history. Such an old subject has entered the agenda of philosophy as a term in a particular period. The influence of this period cannot be denied. Religious experience as a term reflects the religious and philosophical mentality of the period in (...) which it began to be used. This article deals with being a term of the religious experience. This work claims that it is a product of a particular period and there are some meanings given to it and giving these meanings for other religions is problematic. Though it has entered into the literature of philosophy in the 19th century, it is based on the period of reform. The first use of the term is specific to Protestantism, but the latter was used for all religions. Along with the reform, the supernatural experiences were regarded as the most authentic truths. It takes its position in the literature as being influenced by the Enlightenment, accepted as irrational, unexplainable, its epistemological value is controversial, instant, untransferable, extraordinary experiences. (shrink)

The current increase of air pollution rates and its consequences of global warming, health problems and threats to human lives necessitate the continuous search for more efficient and cost effective gas monitoring devices. Devices that is easily available and implementable worldwide. In developing countries the cost and the availability of the equipment is one of the obstacles that contribute to not having an efficient monitoring system. Hence, modifying cheap and easily available devices to work as pollution monitoring system will be (...) an asset in this direction. In this work I am presenting the design of a computer based pollution detection and measuring system using cheap CO (Carbon Monoxide) alarms used in homes. The outcome is a cost-effective computer based CO monitoring system that is easily available and could be easily modified to work as a network based CO nose. A C# based program is also designed to show and log the sensor readings in an easy to use and read Window. (shrink)

Most research on word formation processes focuses on regular morphological and grammatical patterns. Such a focus overlooks several creative and productive word formation processes, such as portmanteau words, leaving several linguistic phenomena unexplained or regarded as exceptions. The present book systematically compares compounding and blending. In the literature, compounding is seen as a regular grammatical and morphological process, while blending is considered non-morphological and grammatically irregular. To address these gaps, the current book proposes an alternative theoretical framework that can explain (...) all morphological processes that assist in expanding the English vocabulary. It is believed that the book has significant implications for categorising word formation processes in general, and compounds and blends in particular. (shrink)

In this chapter, a new type Hyper groups are defined, corresponding basic properties and examples for new type Hyper groups are given and proved. Moreover, new type Hypergroups groups and are compared to hyper groups and groups. New type Hyper groups are shown to have a more general structure according to Hyper groups and groups. Also, new type SuperHyper groups are defined, corresponding basic properties and examples for new type SuperHyper are given and proved. Furthermore, we defined neutro-new type SuperHyper (...) groups. (shrink)

Exocentric compounding is a creative morphological process that contributes to the English lexicon. However, because it lacks a syntactic or semantic head, it was deemed an exceptional case in most word-formation literature and hence neglected. Previous work has only been limited to syntax-based grammar and the notion of headedness and thus failed to address the other linguistic rules that constrain exocentric compounds. The current paper aims to identify the frequency of exocentric compounds and thus to determine their viability. The research (...) will also look into how conceptual metaphor and/or conceptual metonymy motivate exocentric compound formation. The results demonstrate that exocentric compounds are viable lexical units, generating content words (e.g., adjectives and adverbs) through productive word-formation processes, and extending word senses. The results also suggest that conceptual metonymy is more active than conceptual metaphor in the formation of exocentric compounds. The present findings have several implications for research on exocentric compounds, conceptual metonymy and conceptual metaphor. (shrink)

................English....................... The purpose of this study is to reveal university students’ perceptions regarding Holy Qur’an through metaphors. The survey group of study consists of 194 participants who were studying in Theology Department and Social Service Department at Gümüşhane University in the 2014-2015 academic terms. Both quantitative and qualitative methods are used together. The study’s data was collected through a form with the phrase “The Holy Qur’an is similar/like…, because...” and some demographical variables. The Content Analysis Technique was used to interpret (...) data. Results of this study determined that 44 different metaphors regarding Holy Qur’an were given by participants. Theme of these metaphors were compiled as 9 categories consisting of directional, life source, explanatory, key, protective, curative, instructive, speech, and other categories. Top metaphors are in the directional, life source and explanatory categories. Key words are metaphor, perception, The Qur’an perception, religious concepts, and religious symbols. Getting data through comprehensive and in-dept analysis can help to have information about concepts of holy books in the human mind. The purpose of this study is to pick out perceptions of university students with regard to the Holy Qur’an through metaphors. For this reason, these questions are searched by researchers: 1) What are the metaphors which used by university students on description of perceptions regarding the Holy Qur’an? 2) How are the metaphors regarding the Holy Qur’an categorized in terms of common characteristics which produced by university students? 3) Are there any links between socio-demographic variables and composed metaphoric categories? One of the qualitative data collection technics, data collecting through metaphors method is used, and is asked open-ended question in the study. Picking up similarities and diversities under thematic topics is quite easy in the method. Therefore, this method has a functional feature in the sociology, psychology and anthropology, and it gives a wealthy and qualified image about matter, phenomenon, event and situation (Yıldırım & Şimşek 2005, 212). The target population of the study consists of students who were taking education at Gümüşhane University. Easily accessible and availability principles pursued in the sample choosing. In the distribution of participants according to the demographical features, females have 61.9 percent (n:120) and males have 38.1 percent (n:74) in terms of gender. Students who graduated from religious vocational high school is 61.3 percent (n:119), and others who from other high schools is 38.7 percent (n:75) in terms of graduated from different high schools. Students in theology department have 68.0 percent (n:132), and students who were educated in the social service department have 32.0 percent (n:62). Research data is gathered through survey form includes “The Holy Qur’an is like/similar to…, because…” sentence and demographical variabilities. Data, gathered from 194 survey forms, is transferred to the Excel and the SPSS program. In an attempt to reliability of study, gathered metaphors is examined by four area expert. Frequencies (f) and percentages (%) is taken into consideration in the process of replacing metaphors to the tables. Data analysis technique is used on the getting relationships and explaining gathered data, while content analysis technique is used on the interpreting of data. The SPSS program is used in the analysis of quantitative data. Obtained data from the surveys and composed categories is associated with descriptive statements in the verses of the Holy Qur’an. In the composed categories demonstrate distribution of produced 44 different metaphors with regard to the Holy Qur’an as 9 categories. According to this, the sample is represented in the categories as 64.4 % (f:125) is in the ‘directional’, 11.3 % (f:22) is in the ‘life source’, 7.7 % (f:15) is in the ‘explanatory’, 3.1 % (f:6) is in the ‘key’, 3.1 % (f:6) is in the ‘protective’, 2.1 % (f:4) is in the ‘curative’, 2.1 % (f:4) is in the ‘instructive’, 2.1 % (f:4) is in the ‘speech’ and 4.1 % (f:8) is in the ‘other’ categories. Distributions of composed categories are represented according to common characteristics as frequencies and percentages in the next tables. In the distribution of produced metaphors in the ‘directional’ category, university students produced 7 different metaphors (f:125). Frequencies of produced metaphors in the category are such that: guide (f:41), advisor (f:25), mentor (f:19), compass (f:16), road map (f:8), route (f:3) and other (f:13). According to the result, it is understood that aspects of guide, advisor, mentor and compass stood mostly out in the category. In the ‘life source’ category, 6 different metaphors (f:22) is developed by participants. Developed metaphors’ frequencies in the category are the following: life (f:4), lifeblood (f:4), weather (f:2), water (f:2), inheritance (f:2) and others (f:7). So, life and lifeblood aspects stood mostly out in the category. In the ‘explanatory’ category, 5 different metaphor (f:15) is developed by participants. Frequencies of produced metaphors in the category are such that: light (f:5), sun (f:3), flashlight (f:2), torch (f:2) and other (f:3). According to the result, it is understood that aspects of light and sun stood mostly out in the category In the ‘protective’ category, 5 different metaphors (f:6) is developed by participants. Frequencies of produced metaphors in the category are such that: saver (f:2), lifeguard (f:1), hereafter-saving (f:1), escapeway (f:1) and branch to catch (f:1). According to the result, it is understood that aspect of saver stood mostly out in the category. In the ‘instructive’ category, 4 different metaphors (f:6) is developed by participants. Frequencies of produced metaphors in the category are such that: reference book (f:1), dictionary (f:1), priceless book (f:1) and life encyclopedia (f:1). In the ‘speech’ category, it is seen that 4 different metaphors (f:6) is developed by participants. Frequencies of produced metaphors in the category are such that: divine message (f:1), speaking truth (f:1), Allah’s dialogue with us (f:1) and final word (f:1). In the ‘key’ category, 3 different metaphors (f:6) is developed by participants. Frequencies of produced metaphors in the category are such that: a key (f:4), the key of heaven (f:1) and the key of salvation (f:1). In the ‘curative’ category, 2 different metaphors (f:4) is developed by participants. Frequencies of produced metaphors in the category are such that: a pill (f:3) and doctor (f:1). In the ‘others’ category, 8 different metaphors (f:8) is developed by participants. Frequencies of produced metaphors in the category are such that: world (f:1), the friend of lonely passenger (f:1), the tree with fruit (f:1), hereafter (f:1), priceless treasure (f:1), miracle (f:1), philosophy (f:1) and mirror (f:1). Participants composed of 44 different metaphors regarding the Holy Qur’an. The metaphors were summed up in the 9 categories as ‘directional’, ‘life source’, ‘explanatory’, ‘key’, ‘protective’, ‘curative’, ‘instructive’, ‘speech’ and ‘other’ To results of the study; guide, advisor, mentor and compass aspects of the Qur’an came into prominence at most in the ‘directional’ category, when life and lifeblood aspects of the Qur’an came into prominence at most in the ‘life source’ category. Light and sunny aspects of the Qur’an came into prominence at most in the ‘explanatory’ category, while saver aspect of the Qur’an came into prominence at most in the ‘protective’ category. Instructive aspect of the Qur’an came into prominence at most in the ‘instructive’ category. Speech aspect of the Qur’an came into prominence at most in the ‘speech’ category, while key aspect of the Qur’an came into prominence at most in the ‘key’ category. Moreover, pill aspect of the Qur’an came into prominence at most in the ‘curative’ category. Whatsoever world, friend of single traveler, tree with fruit, hereafter, priceless treasure, miracle, philosophy and mirror aspects of the Qur’an came into prominence at most in the ‘other’ category. It is inferred that significant relationships between demographic variables and metaphor categories. In terms of major variable; theology students were composed of more metaphor in the ‘explanatory’ and ‘instructive’ categories, while social service students were composed of more metaphor in the ‘life source’ category. In terms of gender variable; females composed of more metaphor in the ‘curative’ and ‘other’ categories, while males composed of more metaphor in the ‘directional category. In terms of graduating high school variable, students who graduated from religious vocational high school composed of more metaphor in the ‘key’ and ‘speech’ categories, when students who graduated from other high school composed of more metaphor in the ‘directional’ category. Whatsoever, in terms of having the Qur’an education in their life status variable, had the Qur’an education in their life students composed of more metaphor in the ‘curative’ and ‘other’ categories, while other group composed of more metaphor in the ‘directional’. Moreover, in terms of perception of subjective religiousness, students who think themselves are ‘religious’ composed of more metaphor in the ‘key’ and ‘other’ categories, while students who think themselves are ‘less religious’ composed of more metaphor in the ‘explanatory’ category. In terms of perception of family religiousness, students who think own family ‘less religious’ composed of more metaphor in the ‘directional’ and ‘life source’ categories, when students who think own family ‘religious’ composed of more metaphor in the ‘key’ category. It can be suggested by the results of this study; perception of the Qur’an can be studied with the different study techniques, or it can be studied in the different research groups with the same technique. Muslims’ perceptions regarding the Holy Qur’an can be examined with intercultural comparative studies. Perceptions regarding the Holy Qur’an can be researched through interviews. Members’ perception regarding holy book that have different religious faith can be comparatively examined. Individuals’ perceptions regarding different religious concepts can be studied through metaphors................... Turkish...................Bu araştırmanın amacı üniversite öğrencilerinin Kur’an-ı Kerim’e ilişkin algılarını metaforlar aracılığıyla ortaya çıkarmaktır. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, 2014-2015 eğitim öğretim yılında Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi ve Sosyal Hizmetler bölümünde öğrenim gören 194 katılımcı oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada nitel ve nicel yöntemler birlikte kullanılmıştır. Araştırma verileri, “Kur’an-ı Kerim……gibidir, çünkü……” cümlesini ve demografik değişkenleri içeren bir form aracılığıyla toplanmıştır. Verilerin analizi ve yorumlanmasında içerik analizi tekniği kullanılmıştır. Araştırmada Kur’an’a ilişkin 44 farklı metafor geliştirildiği tespit edilmiştir. Bu metaforlardan ‘yönlendirici’, ‘yaşam kaynağı’, ‘açıklayıcı’, ‘anahtar’, ‘koruyucu’, ‘öğretici’, ‘derman’, ‘kelam’ ve ‘diğer’ olmak üzere 9 farklı kategori oluşturulmuştur. Üretilen metaforların ‘yönlendirici’, ‘yaşam kaynağı’ ve ‘açıklayıcı’ kategorilerinde yoğunlaştığı görülmüştür. Demografik değişkenler ile metafor kategorileri arasındaki ilişkiyi ortaya çıkarmak araştırmanın ikincil amaçlarındandır ve bu yönüyle sonuçlar değerlendirildiğinde değişkenler ile kategoriler arasında anlamlı ilişkiler olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Demografik değişkenler ile kategori ilişkisinde fakülte değişkeni açısından ilahiyat öğrencileri ‘açıklayıcı’ ve ‘öğretici’ kategorilerinde daha fazla metafor üretirken sosyal hizmet öğrencileri ‘yaşam kaynağı’ kategorisinde daha fazla metafor üretmiştir. Cinsiyet değişkeni açısından ise kız öğrenciler ‘derman’ ve ‘diğer’ kategorilerinde daha fazla metafor üretirken erkek öğrenciler ‘yönlendirici’ kategorisinde daha fazla metafor üretmiştir. Lise mezuniyeti açısından bakıldığında da İHL’den mezun olanlar ‘anahtar’ ve ‘kelam’ kategorilerinde daha fazla metafor üretirken diğer lise mezunları ‘yönlendirici’ kategorisinde daha fazla metafor üretmiştir. Kur’an Kursu eğitimi alma değişkeni açısından ise Kur’an kursu eğitimi alanlar ‘derman’ ve ‘diğer’ kategorilerinde daha fazla metafor üretirken Kur’an Kursu eğitimi almayanlar ‘yönlendirici’ kategorisinde daha fazla metafor üretmiştir. Ayrıca öznel dindarlık ve aile dindarlık algılarıyla metafor kategorileri arasında da anlamlı ilişkiler elde edilmiştir. (shrink)

.........................Turkish....................... Çalışmanın konusu dindarlık eğilimi ile meslekî tükenmişlik arasındaki ilişkidir. Dindarlık eğilimine göre meslekî tükenmişlik düzeyinde herhangi bir farklılık olup olmadığı ise çalışmanın temel problemini oluşturmuştur. Bu bağlamda meslekî tükenmişlik düzeyini ve dindarlık eğilimini belirlemek için kolayda örnekleme yöntemiyle Gümüşhane il merkezindeki ilkokul, ortaokul ve liselerde görev yapan farklı branşlardaki öğretmenlerden bir örneklem grubu oluşturulmuştur. Elde edilen meslekî tükenmişlik ve dindarlık eğilimi verilerinden yola çıkarak bu iki değişkenin ilişkisi araştırılmıştır. Çalışmada Frekans, Bağımsız t-Testi, Tek Yönlü Varyans AnaliziANOVA testleri kullanılmıştır. Bunun (...) yanında hesaplanan değerleri ve elde edilen verileri değerlendirmek için SPSS (16.0) istatistik paket programı kullanılmıştır. Araştırma iki bölümden oluşmuştur. İlk bölümde dindarlık eğilimi ile meslekî tükenmişlik ilişkisine teorik bir yaklaşım sunulmuştur; meslekî tükenmişlik ve dindarlık kavramı, meslekî tükenmişlikle ilgili yurt içinde ve yurt dışında yapılan araştırmalar ve son olarak da meslekî tükenmişlik ile dindarlık eğilimi arasındaki ilişkiden bahsedilmiştir. İkinci bölümde uygulama kısmı, çalışmanın problemi ve alt problemleri, hipotezler, evren ve örneklem, kullanılan ölçekle ilgili sınırlıklar, çalışma bulgularının analizi, bulguların tartışılması, sonuçlar ve çalışmanın önerileri sunulmuştur. Çalışmanın sonuçlarına göre meslekî tükenmişlik puanları cinsiyet değişkenine göre farklılaşmazken, sosyo-ekonomik durum değişkenine göre anlamlı farklılık göstermiştir. Bunun yanında dindarlık eğilimine yönelik anket maddeleri ile meslekî tükenmişlik puanları arasında anlamlı düzeyde farklılaşmalara ulaşılmıştır. Sonuç olarak dindarlık eğiliminin meslekî tükenmişliğe etki eden faktörlerden biri olduğu tespit edilmiştir....................................English...................... Subject of this study is correlation of occupational burnout with the tendency of religiosity. Our main problem consists of that whether to be any differences in occupational burnout level according to the tendency of religiosity. In this context, it has been propounded that the levels of occupational burnout and tendency of religiosity of a sample group which consists of teachers chosen convenience sampling method from primary schools, secondary schools and high schools in Gümüşhane province. Based on the resulting occupational burnout and tendency of religiosity, investigated the correlation between these two variables. In the study the Frequency, Independent t-Test and One Way Variance Analysis-ANOVA tests were used and the evaluation of data and finding calculated values, SPSS (16.0) statistics software package were used. According to the results of the survey, the occupational burnout scores a differentiation has not been shown according to gender when has been established a significant difference according to socioeconomic status variable as independent variables. Besides, have been established a significant difference between tendency of religiosity of items and occupational burnout scale scores. The study consists of two main parts. In the first part, to provide a theoretical approach to the relationship of occupational burnout and tendency of religiosity; the concept of occupational bornout, the studies made on occupational burnout in domestic and abroad, and finally the relation of occupational burnout and tendency of religiosity have been mentioned. In the second part, considered as part of practice, the problem of the study and sub problems, hypothesis, population and sample, limitations information about the scale used in the study, analyzing the findings of the study, discussing the findings and conclusions and recommendations of the study have been presented. (shrink)

The role of the Ready-made Garment (RMG) sector in transforming the lives of working women in Bangladesh has been controversial. This study examines the impact of paid employment in the RMG sector on the empowerment of its female workers. The fieldwork includes semi-structured interviews with female garment workers to explore their lived experiences and views. The primary qualitative data analysis draws principally on Kabeer's (1999) three inter-related dimensions (resources, agency, and achievements) of empowerment. The main findings of the research are (...) that women with access to employment opportunities in this sector have become economically empowered and independent. The higher economic capacity gives them greater autonomy and makes them confident to make some household and strategic life choices. Increased access to public spaces and consciousness about their right to make life choices have boosted their self-esteem. The study concludes that paid employment in the RMG sector has a significant positive impact on the economic, social, and psychological empowerment of female workers in the readymade garments sector. However, some critical constraints in the sector continue to limit their potential for being further empowered. The findings offer valuable insights for practitioners and policymakers. (shrink)

The term native-like proficiency in English refers to possessing the ability to speak the English language like a native speaker. This study was conducted to investigate Afghan English major undergraduate students’ attitudes toward native-like proficiency in the English language at two public universities in Afghanistan. The study specifically investigated the attitudes of Afghan English major undergraduate students toward the characteristics of a native speaker of the English language, native speakers’ linguistic imperialism, and native-like proficiency in the English language. A mixed (...) research design was used for the study. The quantitative data were descriptively analyzed in terms of frequencies using SPSS and presented in tables. The qualitative data were thematically analyzed and presented. A total of 113 fourth-year (senior students) voluntarily participated in the study. The findings revealed that perfect pronunciation, fluency, and grammatical accuracy were the defining attributes of native speakers. Similarly, students believed that only native speakers have the right to decide the rules or to standardize the English language and that only a native speaker has better English language skills. Moreover, the results revealed that Afghan English major students’ attitudes toward native-like proficiency in the English language were highly positive, and they love to speak with a native-like accent. It is hoped that the findings of the current study will help educators and will be a valuable addition to the current mass of data on the subject. (shrink)

The fundamental question addressed by epistemology is “What is knowledge?”. This study examines the problems Plato presents regarding the definition of knowledge in his Theaetetus dialogue. Plato’s epistemology is shaped by his theory of forms and involves the recollection of forgotten knowledge (anamnesis) and the understanding of the nature of knowledge through the dialectical method. In the Theaetetus dialogue, three different propositions are considered for defining knowledge: perception (aisthesis), true belief (alêthê doxa), and justified true belief (logou alêthê doxan). While (...) detailing how these definitions are debated and refuted, Plato’s epistemic concerns about knowledge and the implications of the “logos” condition he adds to the definition of knowledge are also examined. Plato’s effort to unify knowledge in the realm of forms with knowledge in the perceptible world, specifically through the condition of logos, explains why he does not reach a definitive conclusion about the definition of knowledge in the context of the Theaetetus dialogue. Plato indicates that none of the three definitions are sufficient and chooses not to arrive at a definitive definition of knowledge. This study evaluates Plato’s epistemic concerns regarding the traditional definition of knowledge and how these concerns manifest in contemporary epistemology as the Gettier problem. (shrink)

In this article, we aim to reveal the common mistakes made in the evaluation of the problem of evil from our perspective. Briefly, the problem of evil, which can be defined as “how evil can coexist with the existence of a good and almighty God”, is a problem that both theists and atheists might relate. The subject is important for theists because it is one of their existential questions and problems, and, perhaps, most of the time, it is the subject (...) of criticism of their beliefs. It is important for atheists as it is one of the most important intellectual grounds against theism. In this problem, the theism has been criticized from many points and many different answers have been given to these criticisms in this article, we will try to respond to these general criticisms from our perspective by showing the errors. considering the vast scope of the evil problem, this research is no means conclusive on the matter. It is our hope to contribute to the debate to make the problem of evil clearer for those who are interested in the topic. (shrink)

Hādī Sabzawārī (d. 1289/1872) is among the late School of Isfahan philosophers. He has come to the forefront mostly with his commentary on Mullā Ṣadrā (d. 1050/1640) as he has made great contributions to the understanding and interpretation of Ṣadrā. In this study, firstly her life and intellectual environment were examined in a way to include the political-cultural background of the period. Sabzawārī has attributed the arguments of God to philosophers and classified them as mutaallihūn, ilāhiyyūn, tabiiyyūn and mutakallimūn. He (...) has examined the siddiqin arguments of mutaallih and ilāhī philosophers as metaphysically based arguments of God. The reason for this is that the arguments are based on the examination of existent inasmuch it exist. According to him, siddiqin arguments have also been more effective in terms of proving the existence of God on account of the evidence which takes place between the demonstration-that/quia and demonstration-why as for tabiiyyūn and mutakallimūn have a physics-based approach because they take into account the special qualities of the being such as movement and ḥudūth. Therefore, the method they have used is the demonstration-that/quia. However, according to Sabzawārī, the demonstration-that/quia gives incomplete explanation in proving God. Therefore, the arguments developed based on movement and ḥudūth cannot be at the level of siddiqin argument. With these methodological evaluations, his views on how the knowledge of this concept has been acquired by explaining the semantic analyses of Sabzawārī on the concept of Necessary Existence, which is the philosophical expression of God and four versions of the siddiqin argument were shown, along with their antecedents. Varieties of the proof of movement belonging to the tabiiyyūn, which were taken into account in terms of its agent and purpose, and the ḥudūth proof belonging to the mutakallimūn, to whom he took a critical attitude, were then examined. Key concepts: School of Isfahan, al-ḥikma al-mutaʿāliyah, the argument for the existence of God, siddīqīn argument, argument of movement, argument of ḥudūth. (shrink)

In this paper, we propose some transfor mations based on the centroid points between single valued neutrosophic numbers. We introduce these trans formations according to truth, indeterminacy and falsity value of single valued neutrosophic numbers. We propose a new similarity measure based on falsity value between single valued neutrosophic sets. Then we prove some properties on new similarity measure based on falsity value between falsity value between single valued neutrosophic sets. Furthermore, we propose similarity measure based on falsity value between (...) single valued neutrosophic sets based on the centroid points of transformed single valued neutrosophic numbers. We also apply the proposed similarity measure between single valued neutrosophic sets to deal with pattern recognition problems. (shrink)