Wikipedia

Pashto phonology

This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Amongst the Iranian languages, the phonology of Pashto is of middle complexity,[quantify] but its morphology is very complex.[1]

Consonants

edit
Consonant phonemes of Pashto[2]
Labial Dental/
alveolar 		Post-
alveolar 		Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n ɳ ŋ1
Plosive p b t̪ d̪ ʈ ɖ k ɡ (q)2
Affricate t͡s3 d͡z3 t͡ʃ d͡ʒ
Fricative (f)2 s z ʃ ʒ4 ʂ5 ʐ5 (ç ʝ) x6 ɣ h
Approximant l ɽ7 j w
Rhotic r8
 
Retroflex Sounds in Pashto
ʐ - ږ [South Western Dialect]
غوږ

[ɣwaʐ] Ear

(Noun, Masculine, Singular, Direct Case)
ʂ - ښ [South Western Dialect]
ښکارېدۀ

[ʂkɑ.re.ˈdə] was Visible

(Verb, 3rd Person, Singular, Masculine, Past Imperfective)
ɳ - ڼ
اتڼ

[a.ˈtaɳ] a Type of Dance

(Noun, Masculine, Singular, Direct Case)
ɽ - ړ
لړه

[ˈla.ɽa] Fog

(Noun, Feminine, Singular, Direct Case)
ɖ - ډ
ګاډی

[ˈɡɑ.ɖaɪ] Car, Vehicle

(Noun, Masculine, Singular, Direct Case)
ʈ - ټ
ګټه

[ˈɡa.ʈa] a Rock; Profit, Benefit

(Noun, Feminine, Singular, Direct Case)
Problems playing these files? See media help.
 
Dental-Alveolar Affricates in Pashto
څ and ځ
t͡s and d͡z
څه [what]
/t͡sə/ [sə] (Northern)
منځ [middle]
/mand͡z/ [manz] (Northern)
Problems playing these files? See media help.

1. The voiced velar nasal /ŋ/ is not represented by a separate letter in the Pashto alphabet, but naturally occurs as an allophonic variant of the voiced alveolar nasal /n/ before velar consonants.
2. The voiceless uvular plosive /q/ (ق) and the voiceless labiodental fricative /f/ (ف) primarily appear in loanwords borrowed from Persian of Arabic origin. In Pashto, the former tends to be replaced with the voiceless velar plosive /k/ or the voiceless velar fricative /x/, and the latter tends to be replaced with the voiceless labiodental plosive /p/.
3. The voiced /d͡z/ (ځ) and voiceless alveolar affricates /t͡s/ (څ) remain in the Kandahar (Southwestern) and Quetta (Southeastern) dialects, as well as among majority of the Karlani dialects. In the Derajat region, these respectfully tend to be simplified to the voiced /d͡ʒ/ and voiced palato-alveolar sibilant affricates /t͡ʃ/. Whereas in the Northwestern and Northeastern Dialects, they are simplified to the voiced /z/ and voiceless alveolar fricatives /s/.
4. The voiced postalveolar fricative /ʒ/ (ژ) exists within the majority of Pashto dialects, but changes to the voiced alveolar fricative /z/ in the Derajat region and the Northwestern Dialect, and to the voiced palato-alveolar sibilant affricate /d͡ʒ/ in the Northeastern Dialect, specifically in Peshawar and Swat.
5. The Pashto letters (ږ) and (ښ) have the most variation in pronunciations; from the archaic Kandahar (Southwestern) voiced /ʐ/ and voiceless retroflex sibilant fricatives /ʂ/,[3][4], which had shifted to the voiced /ʝ/ and voiceless palatal fricatives /ç/ in the Northwestern Dialect[5][6], and from it to the voiced velar plosive /g/ (through phonological fortition/stop reinforcement) and the voiceless velar fricative /x/ in the Northeastern Dialect.[7][8] On the other hand, it got simplified to the voiced /ʒ/ and voiceless postalveolar fricatives /ʃ/, specificlally in the Quetta (Southeastern) and Derajat Dialects.
6. The Pashto letter (خ) is mostly pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative /x/, and as a voiceless uvular fricative /χ/ in some accents of the Northeastern Dialect, particularly in the regions of Peshawar and Swat.
7. The Pashto letter (ړ) is a voiced retroflex flap /ɽ/ most of the time, but tends to be a lateral flap /𝼈/ at the beginning of a syllable or other prosodic unit, and a regular flap or approximant /ɻ/ elsewhere.[9][10]
8.The Pashto letter (ر) is pronounced with a voiced alveolar trill /r/ when it is typically used at the beginning of a syllable, and the voiced alveolar tap or flap /ɾ/ is pronounced in between vowels and in word-end position.

  • Voiceless stops and affricates /p, t, ʈ, t͡s, t͡ʃ, k/ are all unaspirated; they have slightly aspirated allophones prevocalically in a stressed syllable, almost like English.


Dialects

edit
See also: Pashto dialects
 
ښ in dialects
/x/ followed by /ç/ followed by /ʂ/ followed by /ʃ/
Example: ښار [city]
/xɑr/ followed by /çɑr/ followed by /ʂɑr/ followed by /ʃɑr/
Problems playing these files? See media help.
 
ږ in dialects
/g/ followed by /ʝ/ followed by /ʐ/ followed by /ʒ/
Example: کېږي [to do - 3:SG:PRS:CONT]
/kegi/ followed by /keʝi/ followed by /keʐi/ followed by /keʒi/
Problems playing these files? See media help.

Dialectal allophones represented by ښ and ږ. The retroflex variants [ʂ, ʐ] are used in the Southwest dialects whereas the post-alveolar variants [ʃ, ʒ] are used in Southeast Dialects. The palatal variants [ç, ʝ] are used in the Wardak and Central Ghilji dialects. In the North Eastern dialects ښ and ږ merge with the velar [x, g].

 
The dropping of /h/ in dialects
General
/ha.ˈlək/
Yusupazi
/a.ˈlək/
Problems playing these files? See media help.

Phonotactics

edit

Pashto syllable structure can be summarized as follows; parentheses enclose optional components:

  • (C1 C2 (C3)) (S1) V (S2) (C4 (C5))

Pashto syllable structure consists of an optional syllable onset, consisting of one or two consonants; an obligatory syllable nucleus, consisting of a vowel optionally preceded by and/or followed by a semivowel; and an optional syllable coda, consisting of one or two consonants. The following restrictions apply:

  • Onset
    • First consonant (C1): Can be any consonant, including a liquid (/l, r/).
    • Second consonant (C2): Can be any consonant.
    • Third consonant (C3 ): Can be any consonant. (see #Consonant Clusters below)
  • Nucleus
    • Semivowel (S1)
    • Vowel (V)
    • Semivowel (S2)
  • Coda
    • First consonant (C4): Can be any consonant
    • Second consonant (C5): Can be any consonant

Consonant clusters

edit

Pashto has a lot of word-initial consonant clusters in all dialects; some hundred such clusters occurs. However, there is no consonant gemination.[11]

 
Consonant Clusters Examples
/ʂk/
ښکنځل

[to abuse]

/ʂkan.ˈd͡zəl/
/ʒb/
ژباړل

[to translate]

/ʒbɑ.ˈɽəl/
/zd/
زده

[learned]

/zda/
/ŋɡ/
ننګ

[honor]

/naŋɡ/
/lm/
لمونځ

[prayer]

/lmund͡z/
Problems playing these files? See media help.
Examples
Two Consonant Clusters /tl/, /kl/, /bl/, /ɣl/, /lm/, /nm/, /lw/, /sw/, /br/, /tr/, /ɣr/, /pr/, /dr/, /wr/, /kɽ/, /mɽ/, /wɽ/ /xp/, /pʃ/, /pʂ/, /xr/, /zb/, /zɽ/, /ʒb/, /d͡zm/, /md͡z/, /t͡sk/, /sk/, /sp/, /ʃp/, /ʂk/, /xk/, /ʃk/, /kʃ/, /kx/, /kʂ/, /ml/, /gr/, /gm/ and /ʐm/ etc.
Three Consonant Clusters /sxw/, /xwɽ/, /xwl/, /nɣw/ etc.

Examples

edit

An edited[note 1] list from the book Pashto Phonology by M.K. Khan:[12]

IPA Meaning
V /o/ was [dialect] و
VC /as/ horse اس
VCC /art/ loose ارت
CV /tə/ you ته
CVC /ɖer/ many, very ډېر
CVCC /lund/ wet لوند
CCV /mlɑ/ back ملا
CCVC /klak/ hard کلک
CCVCC /ʒwənd/ life ژوند
CCCV /xwlə/ mouth خوله
CCCVC /ndror/ sister-in-law ندرور
CCCVCC /ʃxwand/ chewing of food شخوند

Vowels

edit

Most dialects in Pashto have seven vowels and seven diphthongs.[13]

Front Central Back
Close i u
Mid e ə o
Open a ɑ
  • Tegey & Robson (1996) also include near-close vowels /ɪ/ and /ʊ/.[14]

Prehistory

edit

There are many complexities on the development from Proto-Iranian into the modern Pashto vowel inventory (romanization will be used here):[15]

  • *a > ā /ɑ/ in a stressed closed syllable (lā́s < *jásta- "hand")
    • ā > o before w (owə́ < *haftá) or if there is u or w in the next syllable (pox < *paxwá-); sometimes also in adjectives (corb < *čarpá)

Diphthongs

edit
Front Central Back
Close uɪ
Mid əɪ oɪ
Open aɪ, aʊ ɑɪ, ɑʊ

Elfenbein notes that the long diphthongs [ɑi, ɑw] are always stressed, whilst the short diphthongs may or may not be stressed.[16]

 
Diphthongs
ی - aɪ
ښوونځی

[xo.wən.ˈd͡zaɪ]

school
ۍ - əɪ
سيلۍ

[si.ˈləɪ]

wind
او - aw
او

[aʊ]

and
ای - ɑɪ
چای

[t͡ʃɑɪ]

tea
او- ɑw
نياو

[njɑʊ]

justice
وی - oɪ
لوی

[loɪ]

big
وی - uɪ
دوی

[duɪ]

they
Problems playing these files? See media help.

Orthography of diphthongs

edit
Initial Medial Final
aɪ ای َيـ َی
əɪ ۍ and ئ
oɪ اوی ويـ وی
uɪ اوی ويـ وی
aw او َو َو
ɑi آي اي ای
ɑw آو او او

Stress

edit

Pashto has phonemic variable stress,[17] unique amongst Iranian languages.[11]

For instance, in verbs to distinguish aspect:

Verb - Imperfective

(mostly Final Stress)

Meaning Verb - Perfective

(Initial Stress)

Meaning
kenɑstə́ləm I was sitting kénɑstələm I sat down
kenɑstə́m I was sitting kénɑstəm I sat down
ba kenə́m I shall be sitting ba kénəm I shall sit
 
کښېناستم - Stress to Distinguish Aspect
First pronunciation: imperfective aspect with final stress [ә́m], Second pronunciation: perfective aspect with initial stress on prefix [ké]
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Basic word stress

edit

Stress is indicated by the IPA stress marker [ˈ].

In general, the last syllable is stressed if the word ends in a consonant and the penultimate syllable is stressed if the last syllable ends in a vowel.[18]

Example IPA Meaning
رنځور /ran.ˈd͡zur/ sick [adj. masc.]
رنځوره /ran.ˈd͡zur.a/ sick [adj. fem.]
کورونه /ko.ˈru.na/ houses [noun. masc. plural]
ښځو /ˈʂə.d͡zo/ women [noun. fem. plural. oblique.]
لاندې /ˈlɑn.de/ below [adverb, circumposition]

Masculine Words ending in "ə"

edit

These have final stress generally.[19]

Example IPA Meaning
تېره /te.ˈrə/ sharp [adjective]
لېوه /le.ˈwə/ wolf [noun]

Feminine Words ending in "o"

edit

These end in a stressed /o/.[20][21]

Example IPA Meaning
بيزو /bi.ˈzo/ monkey
پيشو /pi.ˈʃo/ cat
ورشو /war.ˈʃo/ meadow, pasture

Wordings ending in Aleph

edit

Words ending in IPA /ɑ/ i.e. ا are stressed in the last syllable.

Example IPA Meaning
اشنا /aʃ.ˈnɑ/ familiar [masc. noun]
رڼا /ra.ˈɳɑ/ light [fem. noun]

Exceptions

edit
 
Pronunciation: jóṛa [well], joṛá [pair]; áspa [mare], aspá [spotted fever]
Recording of a native speaker demonstrating the differences in words caused by stress
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Word meanings also change upon stress.

Word IPA: following general stress pattern [penultimate syllable] Meaning 1 IPA: following exception stress pattern Meaning 2
جوړه /ˈd͡ʒo.ɽa/ well /d͡ʒo.ˈɽa/ pair
اسپه /ˈas.pa/ horse [mare] /as.ˈpa/ spotted fever

Intonation

edit

Questions

edit
 
Pashto Intonation Examples
Question formed by using Interrogative Words
Where do you work ? - hat pattern intonation
Question formed by use of Intonation
They reap the wheat ? - rising intonation
Contrastive Focus Statement
No, I am younger than him - Low-High-Low
Problems playing these files? See media help.

WH-Questions [who, where, when etc] follow a hat pattern of intonation: a rise in pitch followed by a fall in pitch.[22]

تاسو چېرته کار کوئ
[ tā́so ↗čérta kār kawə́ɪ↘ ]

Yes/No-Questions end in a high intonation: a rise in pitch.

غنم يې ورېبل ؟
[ ğanə́m ye wә́rebəl↗ ]

Contrastive focus

edit

When a word is contrasted with another word it carries a low then high pitch accent, followed by a sharp fall in pitch accent.

نه له د نه کشر يم
[ na↘ lə ↗də nə kə́shər yə́m↘ ]

Dialectal phonology

edit

Consonants

edit

This diagram is based on Anna Boyle's division of the dialect variations on geographic regions:[23]

Dialect ښ ږ څ ځ ژ
Southwestern Dialects e.g. Sharkhbun Dialects (Kandahar–Herat, Southwestern Afghanistan) ʂ ʐ t͡s d͡z ʒ
Southeastern Dialects e.g.Ghurghusht and Lodi Dialects (Quetta–Zhob and Dera Ismail Khan–Bannu, Southwestern Pakistan) ʃ ʒ t͡s in Ghurghusht Dialect
t͡ʃ in Lodi Dialect 		d͡z in Ghurghusht Dialect
d͡ʒ in Lodi Dialect 		ʒ in Ghurghusht Dialect
z in Lodi Dialect
Central Dialects - Karlani Dialects (Paktika–Tirah, Southeastern Afghanistan and Western Pakistan) ç in Zadrani
ɕ in Waziri 		ʝ in Zadrani
ʑ in Waziri 		t͡s d͡z ʒ
Northwestern Dialects e.g. Wardak and Ghilji Dialects (Zabul–Maidan Wardak, Northwestern Afghanistan) [24] ç ʝ s and t͡s z and d͡z ʒ and z
Northeastern Dialects e.g. Kharshbun Dialects (Kabul–Kunar and Swat–Peshawar, Northeastern Afghanistan and Northwestern Pakistan) x ɡ s z ʒ in Northeastern Afghanistan
d͡ʒ in Northwestern Pakistan

Regional Variation

edit

This diagram however does not factor in the regional variations within the broad geographic areas. Compare the following consonant and vowel differences amongst regions categorised as Northern dialects:[24]

 
ښه يمه - in Northern Dialects
North Western
/çə ˈjə.ma/
North Eastern
/xə ˈjə.ma/
Problems playing these files? See media help.
Northern Dialects
Meaning Wardak Jalalabad Bati Kot
دوی they deɪ ˈduwi ˈduwi
راکړه give [imperative of راکول] ˈrɑ.ka ˈrɑ.ka ˈrɑ.kɽa
پوهېدل to know [infinitive] pi.je.ˈdəl po.je.ˈdəl po.ji.ˈdəl
شپږ six ʃpaʝ ʃpag ʃpiʒ
وريځ cloud wər.ˈjed͡z wrez wə.ˈred͡z
ښځه woman ˈçə.d͡za ˈxə.za
اوبه water o.ˈbə u.ˈbə o.ˈbə

Or the difference in vowels and diphthongs in North Eastern Pashto:

Meaning Swat Peshawar
ودرېږه stop [imperative of درېدل] 'wə.dre.ga ˈo.dre.ga
جنۍ girl d͡ʒi.ˈnəɪ d͡ʒi.ˈnɛ

Alveolo-palatal fricative

edit

Rozi Khan Burki claims that the Ormuri alveolo-palatal fricative /ɕ/ and /ʑ/ may also be present in Waziri.[25] But Pashto linguists such as Josef Elfenbein, Anna Boyle or Yousaf Khan Jazab have not noted this in Waziri Phonology.[26][27][28]

Vowels

edit

Waziri vowels

edit
 
Waziri Vowels
œ
/ˈpœr.ta/
ɔ
/də.ˈpɔː.ra/
ɒ
/bjɒː/
Problems playing these files? See media help.
Front Central Back
Unrounded Rounded
Close i u
Mid ɛ œ ə ɔ
Near-Open æ
Open a ɒ
The Vowel Shift
edit

Corey Miller notes that the shift does not affect all words.[29]

In Waziri dialect the [ɑ] in Standard Pashto becomes [ɔː] in Northern Waziri and [ɒː] in Southern Waziri.[30]

Meaning Standard Pashto N.Wazirwola S. Wazirwola
ماسته yougurt /mɑs.ˈtə/ /mɔːs.ˈtə/ /mɒːs.ˈtə/
پاڼه leaf /pɑ.ˈɳa/ /ˈpɔː.ɳjɛː/ /ˈpɒː.ɳjɛː/

In Waziri dialect the stressed [o] in Standard Pashto becomes [œː] and [ɛː]. The [o] in Standard Pashto may also become [jɛ] or [wɛː]. [30]

Meaning Standard Pashto Wazirwola
لور sickle /lor/ /lœːr/
وړه flour /o.ˈɽə/ /ɛː.ˈɽə/
اوږه shoulder /o.ˈɡa/ /jɛ.ˈʒa/
اوس now /os/ /wɛːs/

In Waziri dialect the stressed [u] in standard Pashto becomes [iː]. [31]

Meaning Standard Pashto Wazirwola
موږ we /muɡ/ /miːʒ/
نوم navel /num/ /niːm/

When [u] in begins a word in standard Pashto can become [jiː] or [w[ɛ]]

Meaning Standard Pashto Wazirwola
اوم raw /um/ /jiːm/
اوږه garlic /ˈu.ɡa/ /ˈjiː.ʒa/
اوده asleep /u.ˈdə/ /wɜ.ˈdə/

Elfenbein also notes the presence of the near-open vowel [æ].[32]

Apridi vowels

edit
 
Apridi Vowel
ɵ
/ˈpɵr.ta/
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Apridi has the additional close-mid central rounded vowel /ɵ/.[33]

Diphthongs in dialects

edit

The diphthongs varies according to dialect.[34]

Standard Pronunciation Apridi Yusupzai[35] Waziri Mohmand Baniswola/Bannuchi[36] Wanetsi
aɪ ʌɪ
ʌː		 e aɪ ɑ a
ˈaɪ ˈaɪ ˈe æɪ ˈɑːi ˈa
ˈəɪ ˈije ˈəɪ ˈəɪ

ˈe[37]

ˈije ˈi
oɪ waɪ we oːi
œːi		 eːi
uɪ ui, wi ˈojə i
aw ao ow, aːw
ɑi ɑe ˈɑːi
ɑw ɑo oːw

Yousaf Khan Jazab notes that the diphthong /əɪ/ becomes /oi/ in the Khattak Dialect in the verbal suffix /ئ/,[38] but it remains as the diphthong /əɪ/ in the nominal/adjectival /ۍ/ example: مړۍ /ma.ˈɽəɪ/ "meal".[39]

Nasalisation of vowels

edit
 
Nasalisation in Marwat Dialect
Egg - Marwat [Nasalised]
/ãŋɡ.ˈəɪ/
Egg - Yusapzai [Not nasalised]
/ha.ˈɡəɪ/
Problems playing these files? See media help.
See also: Wanetsi § Nasalisation

As noted by Yousaf Khan Jazab, the Marwat dialect and the Bansiwola dialect have nasalised vowels also.[40] It is also noted in the Waṇetsi/Tarin dialect.

These are indicated by the diactric mark / ̃ /.

Standard Pronunciation Marwat Meaning
بوی

buɪ

بویں
buĩ 		Smell

Notes

edit
  1. ^ With some corrected IPA for words mentioned therein . Sources of correction: Kaye (1997), Zeeya Pashtoon (2009) and Qamosona.com

References

edit
  1. ^ Elfenbein (1997), p. 736.
  2. ^ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 15.
  3. ^ Michael M.T. Henderson, Four Varieties of Pashto
  4. ^ Morgenstierne, Georg (2003). A New Etymological Vocabulary of Pashto. Reichert. pp. vii–viii. ISBN 978-3-89500-364-6.
  5. ^ David (2014), p. 9.
  6. ^ David (2014), p. 35.
  7. ^ MacKenzie, D. N. "A Standard Pashto". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 22: 232–233. Archived from the original on October 24, 2005.
  8. ^ Gawarjon (高尔锵/Gāo Ěrqiāng) (1985). Outline of the Tajik language (塔吉克语简志/Tǎjíkèyǔ Jiǎnzhì). Beijing: Nationalities Publishing House.
  9. ^ D.N. MacKenzie, 1990, "Pashto", in Bernard Comrie, ed, The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa, p. 103
  10. ^ Herbert Penzl, 1965, A reader of Pashto, p 7
  11. ^ a b Elfenbein (1997), p. 737.
  12. ^ Khan, Muhammad Kamal (2020-04-08). Pashto Phonology: An Evaluation of the Relationship between Syllable Structure and Word Order. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-1-5275-4925-8.
  13. ^ David (2014), p. 11.
  14. ^ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 17.
  15. ^ Cheung, Johnny (2011). "Selected Pashto Problems II. Historical Phonology 1: On Vocalism and Etyma". Iran and the Caucasus. 15 (1–2): 169–205. doi:10.1163/157338411X12870596615557.
  16. ^ Elfenbein (1997), p. 751.
  17. ^ Bečka, Jiří (1969). A Study in Pashto Stress. Academia.
  18. ^ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 25.
  19. ^ David, Anne Boyle (2015-06-16). Descriptive Grammar of Bangla (in German). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 56 and 109. ISBN 978-1-5015-0083-1.
  20. ^ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 56.
  21. ^ David (2014), p. 68.
  22. ^ "Pashto Intonation Patterns". Interspeech 2017.
  23. ^ David (2014), pp. 31–34.
  24. ^ a b Coyle 2014.
  25. ^ "Dying Languages: Special Focus on Ormuri". Pakistan Journal of Public Administration. 6. No. 2. December 2001. Archived from the original on September 3, 2012.
  26. ^ Elfenbein (1997), pp. 740–749.
  27. ^ David (2014), pp. 37–40.
  28. ^ Jazab (2017), pp. 69–70.
  29. ^ Miller, Corey (2014-05-12). "The Waziri Chain Shift". Journal of Persianate Studies. 7 (1): 125. doi:10.1163/18747167-12341267. ISSN 1874-7167.
  30. ^ a b Elfenbein (1997), p. 748.
  31. ^ Elfenbein (1997), p. 749.
  32. ^ Elfenbein (1997), p. 746.
  33. ^ Elfenbein (1997), pp. 740, 750–751.
  34. ^ Elfenbein (1997), pp. 751–753.
  35. ^ Rensch, Calvin Ross (1992). Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan: Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri. National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University. pp. 79–146.
  36. ^ Jazab (2017), pp. 64–65.
  37. ^ Jazab (2020), p. 189.
  38. ^ Jazab (2020), pp. 187–188.
  39. ^ Jazab (2017), p. 65.
  40. ^ Jazab (2017), pp. 60–61.

Bibliography

edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pashto_phonology&oldid=1311206707"