Wikipedia

Mongols in China

Mongols in China,[5][6] also known as Mongolian Chinese[7][8] or Chinese Mongols, are ethnic Mongols who live in China and hold Chinese citizenship. They are one of the 56 ethnic groups recognized by the Chinese government.

Mongols in China
A Mongol musician playing an Inner Mongolian–style morin khuur (horse fiddle)
Total population
6,290,204[1][2]
Regions with significant populations
Languages
Religion
Related ethnic groups
Mongols in China
Simplified Chinese中国蒙古族
Traditional Chinese中國蒙古族
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinZhōngguó Ménggǔzú

As of 2020, there are 6,290,204 Mongols in China, a 0.45% increase from the 2010 national census.[1][2] Most of them live in Inner Mongolia, Northeast China, Xinjiang and Qinghai. The Mongol population in China is nearly twice as much as that of the sovereign state of Mongolia.

Distribution

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Mongol autonomous subdivisions of China

The Mongols in China are divided between autonomous regions and provinces as follows:

Besides the Inner Mongolia autonomous region, there are other Mongol autonomous administrative subdivisions in China.

Prefecture level:

County level:

Classification

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Photo by Yvette Borup Andrews in 1920

China classifies various Mongolic groups, such as the Buryats and Oirats, together with the Inner Mongols under a single category of "Mongol." The Chinese government also classifies the Tuvans as Mongols, despite Tuvans being a Turkic, non-Mongolic ethnic group.[9] The official language used for all of these Mongols in China is a literary standard based on the Chahar dialect of Mongol.[10]

The ethnic classification might be inaccurate due to lack of information regarding the registering policy.[11][12]

Some populations officially classified as Mongols by the government of the People's Republic of China do not currently speak any form of Mongolic language. Such populations include the Sichuan Mongols (most of whom speak a form of Naic language), the Yunnan Mongols (most of whom speak a form of Loloish language), and the Mongols of Henan Mongol Autonomous County in Qinghai (most of whom speak Amdo Tibetan and/or Chinese).[citation needed]

As of July 2023, official publications have avoided references to Mongolians in China and instead used the term "northern frontier culture" (bei jiang wenhua).[13]

Genetics

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Among the Mongols of China, mitochondrial haplogroup D was in first place (27.07%), followed by mitochondrial haplogroups B (11.60%), F (10.77%), Z (8.01%), G (7, 73%), C (6.91%), A (6.08%), N (5.25%) and M7 (5.25%). Other mitochondrial haplogroups (HV, H, I, M8, M9, M10, M11, R, T, U, W and Y) were sporadically distributed among the studied Mongols of China with frequencies of no more than 1.66%.

Guang-Lin He et al. (2022) examined a sample of current Mongols of China (n=175, including n=97 from Inner Mongolia, n=27 from Liaoning, n=10 from Heilongjiang, n=10 from Jilin, n=3 from Qinghai, n=3 from Xinjiang, and n=25 from elsewhere in China) and found different haplogroup O subclades (107/175 = 61.1% in total) to be the most frequently observed Y-DNA haplogroup:

  • O1-F265/M1354 12.0% (21/175)
    • O1a1a-M307.1/P203.1 3.4% (6/175)
    • O1b-M268 8.6% (15/175)
      • O1b1a-M1470 5.7% (10/175)
        • O1b1a1-PK4 2.3% (4/175)
        • O1b1a2-Page59 3.4% (6/175)
      • O1b2a1a-F1204 2.9% (5/175)
        • O1b2a1a1-CTS713 2.3% (4/175)
        • O1b2a1a3a-CTS1215 0.6% (1/175)
  • O2a-M324 49.1% (86/175)
    • O2a1-L127.1 21.7% (38/175)
      • O2a1a1a1b-F854 0.6% (1/175)
      • O2a1c-IMS-JST002611 21.1% (37/175)
        • O2a1c1a1a1a1-F325 16.6% (29/175)
        • O2a1c1a2-F449 4.6% (8/175)
    • O2a2-P201 27.4% (48/175)
      • O2a2a1a-CTS445 4.6% (8/175)
        • O2a2a1a1a-M159 0.6% (1/175)
        • O2a2a1a2a-F1276 2.9% (5/175)
          • O2a2a1a2a1a2-N5 1.7% (3/175)
      • O2a2b-P164 22.9% (40/175)
        • O2a2b1-M134 21.1% (37/175)
          • O2a2b1a1-M117 12.0% (21/175)
          • O2a2b1a2-F114 9.1% (16/175)
        • O2a2b2a2-AM01845/F706 1.7% (3/175)

The second most frequently observed Y-DNA haplogroup among the sampled Mongols from China was C2 (22.9%, including 16.6% "Northern" i.e. Mongolian/Siberian C2b1a, 1.7% typically Mongolic C2c1a1a1-M407, and 4.6% "Southern" i.e. East Asian C2c1(xC2c1a1a1)), followed by N1-CTS3750 (6.3%, including 2.9% N1a2a1a~, 1.1% N1a2b2a1c~, 1.1% N1b2a2~, 0.6% N1a1a1a1a3a, and 0.6% N1b1), Q (4.6%, including 4.0% Q1a1a1 and 0.6% Q2a1a1), R1a1a1b2a-Z94 (2.3%), and D-M533 (1.1%). Y-chromosomal haplogroup E1b1b1a1b2 (V22) was observed in one Mongol individual from Hohhot, G2a2b2a1a1a2a1a (L654.2) was observed in one Mongol individual from Alxa League, and I2a1b2a1a1a1 (BY128/Y5596) was observed in one Mongol individual from Hinggan League.[14]

Subgroups

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Not all groups of people related to the medieval Mongols are officially classified as Mongols under the current system. Other official ethnic groups in China which speak Mongolic languages include:

Discrimination

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Mongols in China face discrimination by the current Chinese government on the goal of assimilating the Mongolian population into the Han population.[15][16][17]

Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, former president of Mongolia, once stated that "China is trying to get rid of the Mongolian minority within its borders." Once on good terms with Xi Jinping, he changed his stance and became a fierce critic of Xi Jinping due to China's policy decisions pertaining to the Mongolian demography. He said that he feared that Mongolians in China would become the next Uyghurs.[18]

Schooling

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The NPC declared "minority language-medium education is unconstitutional (People's Daily)," enforcing this within Inner Mongolian schools, banning the teaching of the Mongolian language, along with riding of different kinds of Mongolian material that are deemed to de-emphasize Chinese nationality and common identity.[19][16][20] In September 2021, there was a rare protest against the enforcement of Mandarin language as primary instruction medium in schools by the Mongolian community, mostly parents. About 8,000-10,000 protestors were arrested.[18] In 2023, a book on the history of the Mongols was banned for "historical nihilism."[21]

Climate change and poverty relief

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Temperature changes in Inner Mongolia, China.

The Chinese government alleges that Mongol herders/nomads are responsible for inciting climate change due to pastoralist practices. However, this was due to the Household Responsibility System that encouraged industrialized agriculture as opposed to shared grasslands.[17][22] Under the ecological migration policy, the Chinese government has moved thousands of Mongols into urban areas on the basis that the Mongolian nomadic lifestyle has resulted in desertification and sandstorms.[17] In support of the "Go West" campaign, the Chinese government relocated Mongolian people in masses in favor of ecosystem recovery. This movement has resulted in disparities in language, and thus income. Consequently, this process has resulted in Mongolian impoverishment. However, this gap has recently been closing as a result of Mongolian language assimilation.[17][23][24]

Notable people

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See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. 1 2 "Main Data of the Seventh National Population Census". Stats.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
  2. 1 2 "China Statistical Yearbook 2021". Archived from the original on 12 November 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2022.
  3. ↑ Hille, Marie-Paule; Horlemann, Bianca; Nietupski, Paul K. (12 November 2015). Muslims in Amdo Tibetan Society: Multidisciplinary Approaches. Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-7391-7530-9.
  4. ↑ Ding, Mingjun (2004). 边缘化的中国穆斯林族群研究 [Study on the Marginal Chinese Muslim]. 回族研究 [Journal of Hui Muslim Minority Study] (in Chinese) (4). 《回族研究》编辑部: 38–47. ISSN 1002-0586. Archived from the original on 11 July 2026. Retrieved 10 July 2026 – via CQVIP.
  5. ↑ Jirimutu, Jerry (1998). "A socio-demographic profile of the Mongols in China, 1990". Central Asian Survey. 17 (1): 93–108. doi:10.1080/02634939808401025.
  6. ↑ Bulag, Uradyn E. (2003). "Mongolian Ethnicity and Linguistic Anxiety in China". American Anthropologist. 105 (4): 753–763. doi:10.1525/aa.2003.105.4.753. Archived from the original on 3 June 2004. The quest for the standardization of Mongolian [language] in Inner Mongolia was a product as much of a domestication of the Mongols in China as a protest against the imposition of Chinese [Standard Beijing Mandarin] as the national standard language to which all minority languages were forced to conform.
  7. ↑ Wang, Jian; Teng, Xing (2016). "Teachers' beliefs of behaviors, learning, and teaching related to minority students: a comparison of Han and Mongolian Chinese teachers". Teaching Education. 27 (4): 371–395. doi:10.1080/10476210.2016.1153623. S2CID 147587249.
  8. ↑ Deng, Xinmei; Ding; Cheng; Chou (2016). "Feeling Happy and Sad at the Same Time? Subcultural Differences in Experiencing Mixed Emotions between Han Chinese and Mongolian Chinese". Frontiers in Psychology. 7 (1692): 1692. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01692. PMC 5081370. PMID 27833582.
  9. ↑ Mongush, M. V. "Tuvans of Mongolia and China." International Journal of Central Asian Studies, 1 (1996), 225–243. Talat Tekin, ed. Seoul: Inst. of Asian Culture & Development.
  10. ↑ "Öbür mongγul ayalγu bol dumdadu ulus-un mongγul kelen-ü saγuri ayalγu bolqu büged dumdadu ulus-un mongγul kelen-ü barimǰiy-a abiy-a ni čaqar aman ayalγun-du saγurilaγsan bayidaγ." (Sečenbaγatur et al. 2005: 85).
  11. ↑ [http://www.lupm.org/mn/pages/101026mn.htm Archived 2018-12-01 at the Wayback Machine y (Mongolian): Millions of Han Chinese of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region registered as "Mongol" and "Manchu" according to Chinese policy since the 1980s. There is not enough information about Chinese ethnic minorities due to the government policy.
  12. ↑ Өвөр Монголын хүн ам Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine (Mongolian)
  13. ↑ Allen, Bethany (29 August 2024). "'Northern frontier culture': How China is erasing 'Mongolia' from Mongolian culture". The Strategist. Australian Strategic Policy Institute. Archived from the original on 29 August 2024. Retrieved 31 August 2024.
  14. ↑ Guang-Lin He, Meng-Ge Wang, Xing Zou, Hui-Yuan Yeh, Chang-Hui Liu, Chao Liu, Gang Chen, and Chuan-Chao Wang, "Extensive ethnolinguistic diversity at the crossroads of North China and South Siberia reflects multiple sources of genetic diversity." Journal of Systematics and Evolution 00 (0): 1–21, 2022. doi: 10.1111/jse.12827
  15. ↑ "China's push to create a single national identity". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 15 September 2023. Retrieved 15 September 2023. The decline of Mongolian is part of a years-long push by the central government to assimilate ethnic minorities across China.
  16. 1 2 Bagshaw, Eryk (21 July 2023). "'I might die or be murdered': The province fearing it will be wiped out by Beijing". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Togochog, Enghebatu (2006). "Ecological Migration and Human Rights" (PDF). China Rights Forum (4): 26–30. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2023 – via hrichina.
  18. 1 2 Campbell, Charlie (12 July 2021). "How Beijing Is Redefining What It Means to Be Chinese, from Xinjiang to Inner Mongolia". TIME. Retrieved 30 June 2026.
  19. ↑ "Mongolians in China Face 'Cultural Genocide' as Language, Culture Swept Aside: Group". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 30 May 2023. Retrieved 31 May 2023.
  20. ↑ Bulag, Uradyn E. (2003). "Mongolian Ethnicity and Linguistic Anxiety in China". American Anthropologist. 105 (4): 753–763. doi:10.1525/aa.2003.105.4.753. ISSN 1548-1433.
  21. ↑ "China bans book about the early history of the Mongolian people". Radio Free Asia. 3 September 2023. Archived from the original on 5 September 2023. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
  22. ↑ Liu, Lumeng; Ma, Qun; Shang, Chenwei; Wu, Jianguo (1 August 2023). "How does the temporal relationship between ecosystem services and human wellbeing change in space and time? Evidence from Inner Mongolian drylands". Journal of Environmental Management. 339 117930. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117930. ISSN 0301-4797.
  23. ↑ "Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center". www.smhric.org. Archived from the original on 12 June 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2023.
  24. ↑ Liu, Lumeng; Ma, Qun; Shang, Chenwei; Wu, Jianguo (1 August 2023). "How does the temporal relationship between ecosystem services and human wellbeing change in space and time? Evidence from Inner Mongolian drylands". Journal of Environmental Management. 339 117930. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117930. ISSN 0301-4797.

Sources

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  • Mongush, M.V. (1996). "Tuvans of Mongolia and China". International Journal of Central Asian Studies. 1: 225–243.
  • (in Mongolian) Sečenbaγatur, Qasgerel, Tuyaγ-a [Туяa], Bu. Jirannige, Wu Yingzhe, Činggeltei. 2005. Mongγul kelen-ü nutuγ-un ayalγun-u sinǰilel-ün uduridqal [A guide to the regional dialects of Mongolian]. Kökeqota: ÖMAKQ. ISBN 7-204-07621-4.

Further reading

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