Classical Newar or Classical Nepal Bhasa (Modern Newar: pulāṃ bhāy, 'old language') also known as Old Newar, is the vernacular and literary form of Nepal Bhasa used prior to the 19th century.[1] The term is most generally used to describe the form of Nepal Bhasa used in manuscripts and other sources from the Malla dynasty.[1][2][3]
| Classical Nepal Bhasa | |
|---|---|
| Old Newar | |
| पुलाङु नेपाल भाषा | |
 A 14th century palm-leaf manuscript of the Haramekhala, a medical manual written in Classical Newar and the Bhujimola script. | |
| Native to | Nepal, India, Tibet, Bhutan |
| Era | Developed into Modern Nepal Bhasa in the 19th century |
Sino-Tibetan
| |
Early forms | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-2 | nwc |
| ISO 639-3 | nwc |
| Glottolog | None |
The antiquity of the Newar language is not known. The Sanskrit stone inscriptions from the Licchavi Dynasty contains frequent use of Sino-Tibetan words, especially for proper nouns like names of person, settlements and rivers, suggesting the existence of a vernacular Sino-Tibetan language which is believed to be an early form of the Newar language.[4][5] Classical Newar language was the official language and lingua franca of Nepal Mandala during the medieval period.[6][7][8]
History
editLicchavi period
editNewar words appeared in Sanskrit inscriptions in the Kathmandu Valley for the first time in the fifth century. The words are names of places, taxes and merchandise indicating that it already existed as a spoken language during the Licchavi period (approximately 400–750 AD). The inscriptions from the Licchavi period includes Newari words.[9]
Medieval period
editThe earliest known (dated) document in Nepal Bhasa is called "The Palmleaf from Uku Bahal" which dates back to 1114 AD (235 NS).[10] The earliest dated stone inscription in Thakuri dynasty is in Newar, dated Nepal Sambat 293 (1173 CE).[11]
The earliest important books of Classical Newar from the 14th century are Haramekhalā (1374), Mānava Nyāyaśāstra (1380), Amarkośa (1381), and Gopālarāja Vaṃśāvalī (1389).[12] The language continued growing in the Medieval period and enjoyed royal patronage. Some noted royal writers include Mahindra Malla, Siddhi Narasimha Malla, Jagatprakash Malla and Pratap Malla.[13]
Grammar
editNoun cases
editClassical Newar has six cases and they are differentiated based on whether the term in question is animate or inanimate. The following charts provide case endings that can be affixed on the end of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in IAST transliteration for Classical Newar.[14]
| Inanimate | Animate/non-honorific | Animate/honorific | |||
| Case | Singular | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
| Instrumental/Ergative | -n | -n | -taseṃ | -n, -seṃ | -paniseṃ |
| Absolutive | -ø | -ø | -ta, -to | -ø | -pani |
| Sociative | -va | -va | -mis(a)va | -va | -panis(a)va |
| Dative | -taṃ, -yātā | -taṃ, -yātaṃ | -mistaṃ | -yātaṃ | -panistaṃ |
| Genitive | -yā | -yā | -tas, -mis | -yā | -panis |
| Locative | -s | -(s)ke, -yāke | X | -(s)ke, -yāke | -paniske |
ISO
editClassical Nepal Bhasa was introduced in ISO 639-2 code list in 2004.[15]
Literature
editSee also
edit
References
editCitations
edit- 1 2 Malla, Tamot & Kansakar 2000, p. vii.
- ↑ Acharya 1952.
- ↑ Hopkinson 2008.
- ↑ Shrestha 2001, p. 4.
- ↑ Levy, & Rājopādhyāya 1990, p. 36.
- ↑ Malla & Kansakar 1978, p. 40.
- ↑ Anderson 1913, p. 49.
- ↑ Dahal 2000, p. 3.
- ↑ Tuladhar 2000, p. 19-20.
- ↑ Malla, p. 15-25.
- ↑ Malla 1982, p. 6.
- ↑ Tuladhar 2000, p. 21, 25.
- ↑ Tuladhar 2000, p. 48.
- ↑ Otter 2021, p. 11-28.
- ↑ Library of Congress 2004.
Bibliography
edit- Acharya, Baburam (1952). Nepal, Newar and Newari Language. Kathmandu: Nepal-Sanskritik Parisad.
- Anderson, George (1913). Transactions. Vol. 3. Authority of the Society. p. 49.
- Dahal, Peshal (2000). Nepalko itihas (in Nepali). M.K. Publishers and Distributors. p. 3.
- Hopkinson, Alan (2008). UNIMARC Manual: Bibliographic Format. Walter de Gruyter.
- Levy, Robert Isaac; Rājopādhyāya, Kedar Rāj (1990). Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. University of California Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-520-06911-4.
- Malla, Kamal P. "The Earliest Dated Document in Newari: The Palmleaf from Uku Bahah NS 234/AD 1114" (PDF). Kailash. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 27 January 2012.
- Malla, Kamal Prakash; Kansakar, Tej Ratna, eds. (1978). Occasional Papers in the Humanities & Social Sciences. Kathmandu: Institute of Humanities & Social Sciences, Tribhuvan University.
- Malla, Kamal Prakash (1982). Classical Newari Literature: A Sketch. Kathmandu: Educational Enterprise. LCCN 83900126.
- Malla, Kamal Prakash; Tamot, Kasinath; Kansakar, Tej R. (2000). A Dictionary of Classical Newari. Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Dictionary Committee. ISBN 99933-316-0-0.
- Otter, Felix (2021). A Course in Reading Classical Newari. Heidelberg: CrossAsia. ISBN 978-3-946742-94-4.
- Shrestha, Purushottam Lochan (2001). Tripura ra Yuthunimama Durbara [The Royal Houses of Tripura and Yuthunimama] (in Nepali). Bhaktapur Offset Prints. p. 4. ISBN 99933-622-0-4.
- Tuladhar, Prem Shanti (2000). Nepal Bhasa Sahityaya Itihas: The History of Nepalbhasa Literature. Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Academy. ISBN 99933-56-00-X.
- "ISO 639-2 Code Changes". ISO 639-2 Registration Authority. Library of Congress. Retrieved 14 July 2026.
Further reading
edit- Jørgensen, Hans (1936). A Dictionary Of The Classical Newari. København: Levin & Munksgaard.
- Jørgensen, Hans (1941). A Grammar Of The Classical Newari. København: Levin & Munksgaard.