GENESIS OF
INDIGENOUS
CHAKMA BUDDHISTS
AND THEIR
PULVERIZATION
WORLDWIDE
S.P TALUKDAR
encompassing informations of Buddhist
“hakmas. The book's locale on the valleys of
the river Karnaphuli the native land of
ea Buddhist Chakmas-a factive
‘ntion of them and in faggots of
coverings. who's ageing feeling they belong
to Sakyan family in which Gautama Buddha
was born. As we get to know from history
that there was not a single Buddhist in India
more than one thousand years back, barring
the Buddhist Hill Tribes Chakmas in the
erstwhile East Bengal province at one
time, the last remnants of Sakyan Buddhist
purfling Buddhism that remained
unperfidiousness in them. It may be a racy
presentation and it may not be fragile to say:
"Buddhism, in India without Chakmas is
nothing, Ghakmas, without Buddhism in
India, is nothing,” The indigenous Chakmas
are now in holocaust winter-the sands of
lime is running out of them. UNESCO
declared Buddhism world religion (effectual
means of preserving peace) on the Buddha
Purnima day on 13th May (Saturday). 2006.
One would cash this check getting into the
real, with worthwhile documents.
Rs. 750
GENESIS
OF INDIGENOUS
CHAKMA BUDDHISTS
PULVERIZATION WORLDWIDE
S.P. Talukdar
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Some Clippings (Epitoms)
“Wonder is the foundation of all Philosophy,
enquiry the progress. Ignorance the end.”
—Michel DE Montaigne (1533-1592), French Philosopher
“There are only two lasting bequests we can
give our children...one is roots,
the other wings”
—Stephen Covey
“Time is a certain part of eternity’.
—Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.C.)
Latin writer, statesman
“To know, is to know that you know nothing,
that is the meaning for true knowledge.”
—Confucius (C. 551-479 B.C.), Chinese Philosopher
“A reasonable man adapts himself to the world;
the unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt
the world to himself. Therefore, all progress
depends on the unreasonable man.”
—George Bernard Shaw
Contents
Preface
Introduction
Prologue
l. Progenetory
2. Sprinkling of Chakma
3. Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life
4. Chakma Language and Script
5. The Holocaust of Human Rights
Conclusion
Bibliography
Index
Preface
In the present world, there is stiff struggle for strategic
power amongst nations for control over one another. Such
is the case of the indigenous the Buddhist Chakmas too, of
Chittagong Hill Tract in the hinterland of the sea port,
Chittagong in Bangladesh. They are now in the holocaust
of winter, fractionally divided into a number of countries,
but their mind fighting always that they are the broken part
of Sakyan race, behind time, whose wheel of fate has fallen
differently in the vast changing world of the present day.
Once a venturesome tribe now in decline dissemination and
in reality they are the disperies popoulation in different
circumstances and yet united as a community. A water shade
in the life of the indigenous tribal people in CHT who
changed forever at the time when Hindus and Muslims were
awarded their homelands. In 1947, the transfer of power of
the British Colonial Govt. to India and Pakistan on the basis
of division of boundary commission resulted in ramifications
for Buddhists as CHT was clandestinely added to East
Pakistan in violation of the partition rules of colonial India.
I have to thankfully acknowledge the kind help received
from Srimati Anjali Dewan, Supriya Talukdar, Rabindra Lal
Chakma, A.K. Dev Barman and Dr. R.S. Dewan scientist,
Dr. David Brazier, founder and head of Amida Trust,
London, Ven (Dr.) Bhikkhu Pragya Lankar, Ven. Bhikkhu
Priya Pal and Ven Bhikkhu Anomodharshi in preparing this
book. I would also like to express my gratitude to Gautam
Talukdar, Mrs. Manisha Dev Barman, Nihar Kanti Chakma
for their contribution in contingencies defraying much
expenses in to the on encomposing all the relevent materials
and miscellaneous items on this book. My thanks also goes
to R. Excelicia Cunville for translating rendering the Bengali
poems of a most estimed Chakma poet, writer Pran Hari
12 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Talukdar’s writing into English inessence. Last but not the
least my thanks goes to Ven. Bhikkhu Sasana Kitti alter ego
Hye Dahl for his contribution of an article ‘The ways of
Enlightenment’. Kindly pardon me, if I have inadvertently
omitted some names. I received from many handsome tips,
glean datas and ideas. Please know, how much I appreciate
your kind help. Most of all, I would like to express my
gratitude to Rohit Talukdar, my nephew without his support
this book would not have seen the light of the day. The
materialisation of the book could not have taken place.
S.P. Talukdar
Introduction
The book testifies to the fact that there are reasons to
believe Chakmas belong to the original Buddhist race in
India. They are being maligned by intransigent powerful
rulers. They are mired in sufferings for government's
subservient policies to them. Thus, they lost their native
homeland and became landless and going through a
tormented era. In the past, they had a major role in history
being the offshoots of Sakyan progeny which had out worn
and it could be seen, if we turn to their intrinsic historical
past with studying their language, culture, civilization,
religion and other aspects. All this has been dredged up in
this book of original Buddhists who had been the victims of
de-civilization in the modern era being mired in ignorance
and getting into the swing of obliviousness, squarely divided
in many dominions, and states. When, more than a decade
ago, my previous publication was “The Chakmas Life and
Struggle”, | thought, I was summing up things of intellectual
enquiry of loss of a sense of identity of Buddhist Chakmas
reviewing the origin of their crestfallen era. But, as a matter
of fact, I was repressive of my mind as a wage earner at that
time and many facts remained unquoted and remained
unsubstantiated. Its review was done by The Hindustan
Times dated 2nd October, 1988 by Kalyan Mukherjee’ and
next was done by P.C. Biaksiama? former Dy. Finance
Advisor, N.E. Council, Govt. of India, Shillong that was
broadcasted AIR (NES) Shillong in Dec. 1996. The social
physics of the problem is multilateral and multifarious,
which has been dealt in this book, putting up on more
backups and esoteric, informations on Chakmas having
picked up the thread where I left off in my previous book
which had set my mind thinking of many under-covered
facts of the Buddhist civilization on the nodal point in Indian
14 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
sub-continent. The book review understood my innate
interest and intentions of my people who were at the
receiving end since the independence, 1947. They mentioned -
in the hindsight, “History Past and Present”, of the
beleaguered Buddhist Tribe, ousted from their home land
CHT now in Bangladesh, which became a sanctuary for
insurgents of Muslim fundamentalists and its breeding
grounds in this region, they overran the whole area of CHT
and carried out an onslaught and outnumbered the locals
(tribal). One of the greatest tragedy befalling the
contemporary world is the human tragedy, that is the
problem of unwanted people, a mismatching community in
a Muslim state with aberrated belief (or a way of life) like
the Buddhist Chakmas in Bangaladesh. Chakmas Buddhist
persuasion has remained a total perfidious act. This has
been cited with transparent evidences, and categorically
explained in this book. At the highest political level the aim
has been to get the Buddhist into the swing of things and
in the fullness of time they will be getting into oblivion. This
has held back their progress and now at the bottom level of
world grouping of classification of people. A renowned
Buddhist scholar from Bengal, Pandit Atisa Dipankara, said
that giving compassionate love to the helpless and the poor
is as important as meditating on emptiness. This virtue of
compassion is the principal foundation stone of Mahayana
Buddhism.
References
1. The Chakmas Life and Struggle by S.P. Talukdar, review
of the book by Kalyan Mukherjee.
2. The Chakmas Life and Struggle by S.P. Talukdar, review
of the book by P.C. Biaksiama.
Prologue
Mr. Rigoberta Menchu Tum! recipient of the Noble prize
for peace and goodwill Ambassador for 1993, had advocated
for the right of world’s 300 million indigenous people writing
on them is a very finicky job as nothing much is known
about them. Many micro indigenous tribes had already been
written off or have already lost their original identity in the
majority culture with telling effect. Behind the veil they can
only raise their voice. In the global scenario their need for
social justice and more democratic right and freedom,
protecting them equally against sinful activities of the
authorities and who can pull powers. This book is in the
light of an ever shifting fabric of events resulting in the
stratification of Chakmas (Changma as they pronounce
themselves) far and wide from their own homeland in the
last 50 years. In 1947, the representatives of India and
Pakistan (our national leaders) at that time made an infamy
ray decision on the acceptance of the British boundary
commission’s report on Bengal by Sir. Cyril Rad cliffe
reading an inflationary spiril in the situation of the future
Buddhist Chakmas to their identity unfixing as they had
to forgo their geographical area in the burgain of Hindu and
Muslim interest with an striking deal of transfer of power
for freedom. It was the externalization of quagmire of
Chakmas. From the historical perspective once upon a time
Indian sub-continent was known to be Buddhist India, when
Saka Tribe in which Sakya muni Gautama Buddha was born
and they seem to be magnate at many places in smaller and
bigger powerful ways like kushan empire who was termed
saka or seythian tribe, entered India over 60,000 years B.C.
through different routes b,; Hindukush ranges (Iran) and
the Himalayan ranges (Nepal, Tibet and the river valleys
(Brahmaputra known to be Tsangpho in Tibet).
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
In Asoka’s time there used to be a friendly relation with
yun-nan (China) through Shan states (Myanmar) and the
local Buddhist traditions still alive and it seems they belong
to the same stock of people, like. Singpho (India), Jampho
(China). Khamte, Tai-Phake, Nam-Phake, Tai-Khamyang of
one group of people. Chakmas (India, Bangladesh)
Daingnak and other denominations inMyanmar of the same
stock of people. Some believe Chakmas were in
Brahmaputra valley in Assam before their migration to CHT,
as their traditional, cultural, physical and linguistic affinities
are very common to the Ahom people in Assam. They all grew
up in Buddhist ways/ideas. In Hiousen-Tsang’s memorial it
is written there were eighty-eight thousand stupas from east
to west from kingdom Tamralipta to the border of Sindh.
There used to be a lot of Stupas in Manipur. The impact of
Buddhim is still stongly visible in them which had a tie with
Dhanyabati (Dha-ngya-wati) ruled by Sankyan of the same
progeny of Gautama Buddha of Kapilavastu (now in Nepal)
and moved out after the massacre during Buddha’s life time
and established kingdom in Myanmar (Burma) and as time
rolled in Sakyan’s rule was established at Dha-ngya-wati
(Arakan). According to Arakan history Gautama Buddha
visited Arakan and in his honour a Mahamuni Monastery
was established there. Around 7-8 A.D. there used to be a
Buddhist learning centre in Vikramsila in Champa kingdom
on the bank of the Ganges from where there used to be a
direct communication link to Arakan by river and sea route.
The site of Vikramsila has remained untraceable by
archeologists and the real history has remained unknown.
This is the short form of their history upto 1947 this is based
on the analysis of certain section of the human geneme-such
as the y-chromosome in men or mitochondrial DNA in
women—that helped to determine the human migratory
pattern. After having moved out of their ancestral home
place Chittagong Hill Tracts, now in Bangladesh and their
deliquescence can be seen world-wide. The homeland has
become a living space for others compelling them to flee away
16
Prologue 17
from there, and it has become a trouble torn area. Having
no role in the modern events of history they are being
defaced. They are in a land not dovetailed with them and
are being faced with inveterate perpetual provoking and
being defaced inwards and outwards disasters. Only peace
can recreate the golden era that has put the time backward.
Let me now digress for a moment and explain the events of
history from ages back. The term Chakma is the integral
part of the people and can have variant spelling T-Sak-Ma
(T-silent, Sakma), Chakma, Thet-Ma, etc. in phonological
terms in different parts of human geography.
Ethnographically, they belong to T-Sak, Thet (k) tribe. The
word T-Sak witnesses the meaning of the people Sak or
Chak. Historically a clear meaningful understanding of the
two identical words. The T-Sak originated from Central
Asia. In the olden days they were known to be Scythians.
Historigraphically the father of historial Hirodotus says:
Persians and other peoples in it as referred to the Scythians
living in Asia as Sakas. Hirodotus describes them as
Scythians, although they figure under different names: Indo-
Scythians and invasion of India by Scythians tribes: Sakas”
receive numerous mention in Indian text, including the
Puranas, the Manusmriti, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata,
the Mahabhasaya of Patanjali, the Baharat Samhita of
Vraha Mihira, the Kavyamimasa, the Baharat-Katha-
Manjari and the Katha-Saritasagara. In India they were
called Saka (Shakas). As History writes although the Sakas
had a reputation of peace and war like, one of the greatest
sages the Buddha descended from this tribe: he had the title
Shakyamuni which means ‘Shaka monk, The root of Sak:
wanderer. They have been stratified throughout the history
but there are still substantive identities to be carried out of
them. A circumscription of Sakyan from ancient time to the
present day is a history of interpersonal, speculation
between people as no serious study has yet been worked out.
The Chakma (T-Sakma) the name evolved in the tribes of
Brahamputra valley in Assam which is known as
18 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
(T-Sangpho in Tibet). In 1947, at the time of decolonization
monstrosity on dividing British India on the basis of two
nation theory for creating homeland for the Hindus and the
Muslims, the CHT changed hands which was originally to
remain with India, but finally it was gifted to Pakistan
violating the norms on which India was divided CHT 98 P.C.
Buddhist inhabited area from the very ancient time (in the
erstwhile East Pakistan) was exchanged with Ferozpur (Sikh
dominated Hindu area) in West Pakistan by the National
Leaders at the top (Nothing specific is known about the
bartering behind the scene or the under hand plot) and thus
the life of the Chakmas changed forever, the last remnants
of Indian Buddhist in partisan way. The ethos of the
‘Chakmas was under threat and became obsure. The wheel
of fate of Indigenous Chakmas berated and became the
’ victims of Human rights violations since then. The tragic
incidents of their life has become a routine feature. They
are facing tyrannical oppressiveness, exploitations
(Genocide) by the majority from the very inception. The
social and cultural milieu reached the apex of unacceptability
and finally they began fleeing their ancestral homeland
since 1964, after the construction of a Hydro Electric Kaptai
Dam on the river Karnaphuli inundating 40 per cent of the
best agricultural land*. This resulted in Chakma exodus
from their ancestral homeland in perpetuity. It was an
excruciatingly painful situation when many outsiders from
plains began pouring in crushing their powers. Since
dispersion is one of the topics in the epics of Asian history.
History reaps on them driven from their natural home. Their
mental disposition began to wane in various ways in complex
environmental surroundings, milieu of culture and political
interest. The actions and utterance of the power behind the
scene was to bring them into the fold of Islam. But they have
diverse ideas of their commemoration of a flourishing city
‘Champa’ (indicating their name Chakma), their original
Prologue 19
homeland, which remained unearthed till today, Their many
places by the name Champa which are follows:
Champa-Sak, is the name of a town in Laos, close to
Thailand border. It was the name of a Kingdom where
eastern boundary was formed by the sea of China and the
west from the valley of Mekong river. Chakmas’ estimation
of their old memory has been fictionalized, believing that
they were from Dinnawadi, Champa Kingdom from where
traders sailed to Suvarnabhumi, Danyaboti now Arakan in
Myanmar, in the trans-Gangetic region. The Gangetic valley
was occupied by the Mongoloid (Turanian, Myanmar Origin)
in the olden era. Probably they were of Sakyan lineage. The
Tibetan and the Burmese races have a common origin and
have now obtained universal acceptance having moved
westwards from starting point to find ultimate resting place
in Tibet, N.E. (India) and finally CHT. The location of
Champa was just off to Mithali now in Bihar, India. Champa
is referred to as one of the six principal cities of ancient India
in 6th B.C., presently Champa Nagar a village near south
Bhagalpur. Champa was a kingdom comprising of Monghyr,
Santhal Parganas, Birbhum whose capital was Odantapuri
(till unexcavated). There was a great centre of learning
Vikramsila’. Vikramsila monastry (still unexcavated fully)
(probably at Anthichak — Paharghata near Colgong, District
— Bhagal Pur, Bihar. It was built by Dharama Pala,
Odantapuri — Maha Vihara (cited at Bihar Sarif near
Nalanda and Jagaddala — Mahavihara established by
Ramapala in Varendri (north Bengal) won international
fame. Some Buddhist luminaries of these monasteries
including Dipankar Srijana Atisa (AD 980 —1053) head of
the Vimkramsila establishment went to Tibet. Buddhism
was discouraged® in 9th Century onwards and finally it was
massacred by Muslim invaders in 12 A. D. There was old
river Koratoya® between Bengal and Assam, where
Buddhism flourished at one time. T-Champa is referred to
a place in Shan Kingdom. The Shans (Yunnan in China and
on the western part of MeKong river swamped over Burma.
20 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
They over populated the earliest indigenous Shakyans all
over. The first came, Tibeto-Burman race, the second came,
Mon-Kamer race and the third came, Tai-Chinese race. The
word Sakas has been written off in the ever-changing
scenario of racial dominance with its neighbours blend with.
Sakyans (Chakmas) belonging to Tibeto-Burman race,
whose great numbers are seen in this region. T-Sanpay Nago
like the name Champak Nagar has been referred in the Hill
tracts between Assam and Burma and on the upper
Brahamaputra by Lt. R. Wilcox, (1825): which reads as
under:
“Old T-Sampaynago Myo is situated at the mouth of a
small river flows from Mogout and Kyatpan, and falls
into the Irrawaddy immediately opposite the modern
chold of that name. No foreigners says Captain Hannay,
except the Chinese are allowed to navigate the
Irrawaddy above the choki of Tsanpaynago, situated
about seventy miles above Ava, and no native of the
country even is permitted to proceed above that post,
excepting under a special license from the Government.
The trade to the north of Ava is entirely in the hands of
the Chinese and the individuals of that nation residing
at Ava have always been vigilant in trying to prevent
any interference with their monopoly.”
Strategically, there is too much at stake in this trouble
torn region till today and their history remains to be
written. Their dreadful struggle is at bay long since the
moral responsibility of safeguarding the innocent people
has become far beyond recognition by international
community till today. It makes nothing for rich and
powerful communities in the present world this is the
chief worry for the indigenous people all is over the
world, where it is worthwhile to know something of
Chakmas, whose fortune is overcast in darkness. The
storm remained unending over their head in the brevity
of worldly life, who are innately born. But under the
present nuclear world everything is value based.
Prologue 21
Therefore, their value must be enshrined in the
judgement of Human Rights, so that they play a roll in
the progress of human endeavour.
Sakas
Asians, especially Persians, knew the Scythians in Asia
as Sakas. The Indo-Scythians had the name “Shaka” in
South Asia, an extension on the name “Saka”. Herodotus
describes them as Scythians, called by a different name:
“The Sacae, or Scyths, were clad in trousers, and had
on their heads tall stiff caps rising to a point. They bore
the bow of their country and the dagger; besides which
they carried the battle-axe, or sagaris. They were in
truth Amyrgian (Western) Scythians, but the Persians
called them Sacae, since that is the name which they
gave to all Scythians.” (Herodotus VII. 64)
Shakas receive numerous mentions in texts like the
Puranas, the Manusmriti, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata,
the Mahabhasiya of Patanjali, the Brhat Samhita of Vraha
Mihira, the Kavyamimamsa, the Brihat-katha-Manjari, the
Katha-Saritsagara and several other old texts. The accounts
typically group Scythians as part of an amalgam of other
war-like tribes from the northwest.
Although the Shakas had a reputation as fierce and war-
like, one of the greatest sages of peace, the Buddha,
descended from this tribe: he had the title Shakyamuni
which means “Shaka monk”.
Indo-Scythians
The Indo-Scythians, a branch of the Scythians, migrated
into Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, Gandhara, Kashmir, and
finally into the Punjab and the northwest of the Indian
subcontinent, between the middle of the 2nd century BC and
the 1st century BC.
22 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
The “king of the Sakas” (compare with the Greeks’ King
Omarg/Amorg), driven out of Farghana, transferred his
headquarters to the south across the Hanging Passage
leading to Jibin. His retreat from Farghana took place in
the mid-second century BCE, and by approximately the mid-
first century BCE Saka kings appear in India. It is
significant that the first Saka king known in India (Maves
on coins: Moga in epigraphic evidence) had the same name
as the king of the Amyrgian Sakas (Mavakes) during the
time of Alexander II of Macedonia. Apparently this king
figures in Chinese sources as Yinmofu, the ruler of Jibin. It
is not by chance that Ptolemy records the Kaspirs (= Jibin)
as occupying a vast territory from the Bidaspes (Jhelum)
River to the mountain of Quindion (Vindhya), including the
town of Modura (Mathura) (7.1.47); this evidently reflects
the situation during the early period of Saka dominion in
India when Kashmir was still regarded as the center of the
kingdom. Apparently the king’s horde, drawing after them
the rest of the Amyrginas, moved from Farghana and the
Alai valley, at first through areas where the Amyrginas were
already assimilated, via Qarategin, Darvaz, and the western
Pamirs, and then through the passes of the Hindu Kush.
Individual groups of the Amyrgians might have taken routes
farther to the west (although still within the limits of the
eastern, mountainous area of Central Asia), In this way, the
ancestors of the Munjans penetrated into the Gbkcha valley
and Badakhshan. It is also possible that the Parsii
mentioned in Classical sources ended up in the Bamiyan
region, and the Parsyetae, the ancestors of the Afghans, on
the upper Kurram. Thus, one may conclude that the Sakas
who appeared in India and the eastern part of the Iranian
plateau in the second-first centuries BCE were Amyrginas
from Farghana and that they migrated across the western
Pamirs and adjoining western mountainous area, rather
than, as is commonly assumed, through the eastern Pamirs.
Route from Central Asia to India, the ethnic of the Sakas
(Scythians) — I. P’iankov, the free encyclopaedia.
Prologue 23
Some British writer believe earlier Koch kingdom in north
Bengal and Chakmas in CHT were Scythian origin.
An account of Chittagong Hill Tracts R.H. Hutchinson
“The chieftainess rendered the Government a certain amount
of aid in the dark days of the Indian Mutiny. She secured and
delivered up some of the Sepoys of the native regiments that
mutinied at Chittagong and had be taken themselves to the
Hills to avoid retribution, otherwise, for forty years she proved
a thorn in the side of the Government, she was an exceedingly
able woman, and, having surrounded herself, with Bengali
Lawyers from the Chittagong, fought very hard to avoid
meeting her obligation, and put forward all sorts of real and
imaginary, claims to land settlements in the Chittagong
District itself. She exercised a very great influence, over her
tribe and was generally feared —An Account of Chittagong
Hill Tracts — R.H. Hutchinson —p. 94.
Destruction of Champa (South of Bhagalpur)
In Hiouen-Tsang time (7 AD) north Bihar was divided
into Vreji to the north and Vaisali to the south, both countries
stretching east wards to the Mahananda. South of the
Ganges were Hiranya Parvana (Monghyr) and Champa
(south of Bhagalpur the Santal Parganas and Bhirbhum).
The rulers of both these kingdoms were probably Scy*hian
of Mal origin. In the ninth century the Buddhist dynasty
founded by Gopal included Bihar in its dominies. The last
of this line was defeated in 1197 by Muhammad-i-Bakhtyar-
Khilji, whose soldiers destroyed the capital of Odantapuri
and massacared the Buddhist monks assembled there.
Imperial Gazetteer of India Vol. XV, p. 24.
It is recorded Bengal may be radically divided into two
ereat stocks, the Negrite or Dravidian with its nucleus in
Chutia, Nagpur, extending over the whole of south Bihar,
western Bengal Orissa and large part of north Bihar, and
the Mongoloid or Lohitic which includes eastern and
northern Bengal with off-shoots into North Bihar, and which
was divided probably by the great river Koratoya into two
24 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
groups, of which the southern was coterminous with Bengal
or the Barendra Desh and was peopled by chandals, while
the northern, known as the Matsya Desh, the land of fish,
was the home of the Kochh. The Koratoya flowed east of
Pabna, but south of Dacca, and the Kochh-Mandi, still found
in latter district, are probably the remnants of the earliest
inhabitants. It is singular fact that the Tibetan traditions
place one of the capitals of Sakyas or Scythian on the bank
of Bhagirathi, a fact that could probably point of Turanian
Sovereign resident at Gaur before the ancient capital had
become Hindu metropolis.
References
1. Freedom for indigenous people by Rigoberta Menchu
Tum.
2. Route from Central Asia to India, the ethnic of the Sakas
(Scythians) -1. P‘iankov, The Free Encyclopaedia.
3. Sakas and Indo-Scythians.
4. An extract from the book Chittagong Hill Tracts by R.H.
Sneyd Hutchinson.
®. Destruction of Champa (south of Bhagalpur) Imperial
Gazetieer of India, Vol. XV, p. 24.
6. Ibid.
7. Vikramsila Monastery (University).
. Buddhism Discouraged, Imperial Gazetteer Vol. VII,
p. 210.
9. Karotoya, Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. XV, p. 24.
10. The two great ethnic stocks of Bengal (Census of India,
1891 Vol. III, p. 262 by C.R. O'Donnell).
Oo
1
Progenetory
History
There is no semantic or syntactic informations evidences
of the origin of Chakmas, who identify themselves to be
Changma claiming to have originated from Sakya (Sakyan
race in which Sakamuni Gautama Buddha was born in Saka
race in Nepal. History is displaced, as history really is, when
we breathe into it, such is the case of the Buddhist Chakma
tribe of Chittagong Hill Tracts now in Bangladesh. Their
perpetuity in Buddhism originated from very ancient times
when the realm of Buddhism reached its culmination in
Burma now Myanmar. From the facts of history we know,
Abhiraja! alongwith Sakyan clansmen came from
Kapilavastu (The little village of Pipprahwa 93 kms from
Lumbini via Sonauli), the capital of Sakyas, where Buddha
spent the first 30 years of his life. If Lumbini is remote then
Kapilavastu seems to be caught in a time wrap in India (now |
Nepal) and founded Kingdom at Tagaung (850 BC) in Burma
and Arakan (825 BC). Down in the line of descendency, there
was Binnakya Raja (523 BC) of Burma whose contemporary
was Dhaza Raja of Kapilavastu. During his period Sakyans
were massacred in Nepal. He with his followers fled to Male
(Burma) and married Binmakya Raja’s widow being of the
same Sakyan clan. From historical information it is known
that Sakya King Dhaza Raja passed through Manipur on
way to Kubo valley in Myanmar where he established his
kingdom.
The Sakyan in Manipur were uprooted by Meitheis from
Shan of Yunnan, China (Kubo valley changed hands in 1834
26 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
o Myanmar and later became a
part of India, but again in 1953 AD India ceded it to
Myanmar). Before British colonial rule the India’s Eastern
frontier was in Burma. By the treaty of Yandaboo ratified
in 1826 the Burmese were forced to cede Arakan and the
strip of Tenasserim coast as well as Assam and Manipur to
the British, thus securing India’s north eastern frontier zone.
Finally, in 1862 these areas were amalgamated to form
British Burma and made a province of the Indian empire.
They were all living in peace and harmony, since the
earliest time: the homeland of T-sak ma (Chakma) the land
of Mongolian people (If Champa of 6th AD is T-champas or
Shans whose jurisdiction was from Mekong China-Thailand,
then the T-sak-ma (Chakma) might have closeness to Shans.
Tagaung was overthrown by Chinese Shans in about 600
B.C, and Sakyan moved out and founded kingdom at old
Pagan and went further to Prome. Dhaza Raja’s dynasty, a
line of 17 Kings ruled at Tagaung (old Pagan) until, within
one generation posterior to the year 568 A.D., it was
displaced by Hkum — Long who installed his eldest son Ai —
Hkum — Long on the throne of that kingdom. In this
connection it may be noted that there is a significant
mention of a revolt of 12 villages in the Tagaung Chronicle
with the result that Tagaung became subservient to the
Shan Chinese. This undoubtedly refers to the first success
of the Shans under Hkum — Long’s generalship in ousting
the Indian Sakya dynasty from Tagaung kingdom. From
historical information we have the knowledge of ramification
of Sakya race throughout Burma in the space of time. The
earliest indigenous ‘Sak’ people in Burma are known as
‘Thet’ pronounced ‘Sak’ who inhabited in Cak — Htaung in
Myanmar.
The name Brahmaputra river in Assam is known to be
T-sanpho in Tibet which enters at a confluence estuary called
Dihing in the north-east region in India. The inhabitants
on both sides of the river Dihing are now known to be by
Progenetory 27
different names like Abors, Miris (Mishing), Padam-Mishing,
Adi, Nishi and others. They worship nature, while those who
came into plains lost their identity in Hinduism. But their
counterparts in Tibet and Burma are Buddhists. There has
been a variation in their identities, language, and culture
in different countries in the space of time. The Ahom Shan
kings of Assam continued the custom at least as late as the
seventh century, and would even bury one of the slaves alive
to look after a lamp in the tomb, until the English compelled
them to abandon slave holding. It is notionally believed that
Chakmas have genealogical link with Arakanese for the
reason that those who inhabited in the Chittagong hill tracts
are known to be Annakya Chakmas and those who were in
Arakan (Mayanmar) are called Doingnak Chakma and
Tangchangya Chakma (they moved into Chittagong hill
Tracts around 1819 AD). They use Chakma as surname.
Arakan was known as Rowyangya and some of them are
called Rowyangya Chakma. In 1582 AD Chittagong was
annexed to British company during the reign of Todar Mal
(Mughal).
Mughal Rule
The Mughal dominated period continued from 1526 —
1803 AD. In 1712 AD, there were several encounters
between the forces of Chakma King and the Mughal
Governor of Chittagong of a border dispute and the Chakma
chief captured two canons, which are known as ‘Kalu Khan’
and ‘Fatheh Khan’. However, 1713 AD the Chakma king,
Fateh Khan made peace with the Mughals and obtained
permission from the Mughal emperor, Farruk Shiyar to
allow traders to trade with hill cultivators on payment of
11 mounds of cotton which was largely grown in the hills
and transported through the river Karnaphuli. It also gave
access of hill cultivators to Chittagong for buying their
necessities, i.e. salt, dry fish, etc. There had been no external
interference by any outside power in the affairs of the CHT
until 1787 when an agreement was signed with the British
28 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
and the British colonization started since 1860 during the
reign of Queen Kalindi Rani (Chakma Queen). So the Kings
of CHT reigned independently during the whole pre-British
era.
Jhuming Forest Hill Tract
The status of CHT was as hill cultivation tract/Jhoom
tract. Slash and burning of forest continued even after
British Company took over from the Mughals, and was
administered by a superintendent whose official designation
was raised to Deputy Commissioner in 1860. The first D.C.
Lt. Col. T.H. Lewin whose headquarter was at Rangamati.
A CHT Police force was raised with indigenous hill people
and its effectiveness was well recognized. The same is the
case of many indigenous tribes was broken up in space and
time but their moral ethics and culture remained unaltered.
Their mainstay in Jhuming (Forest slash and burning), was
in Arakan Yoma (Bhootidong, Rothidong, Dinnawadi),
Matamuri river valley, Karnaphuli river valley in
Bangladesh, Thega river valley, Tuichong, river valley and
Sajek (Khawthiangtuipui) river valley in Mizoram, India. In
time and space they swamped over and spread over in this
geographical region which is abundantly seen. These areas
are the outlying parts of CHT, now divided into different
states and number of countries.
Groups and Sub-groups
One such is the case of a tribe of Arunachal Pradesh in
India. This tribe is known to be Singphos who are known
as T-Sangpho in Tibet, Jimpho in China and Kachin in
Myanmar. Interestingly, the single fact is that they are of
one group of people under different names in different
countries. As gleaned in history Mongolian hords passing
southward from Tibet in successive waves towards the sea
doubtlessly populated the valleys of Burma and Arakan and
bordered with CHT a successive group of hill tribes. There
are clear evidences that Sakyan Chakmas have undergone
Progenetory 29
changes at different places at different times since ages.
Much the same is the case of the Chakmas of Chittagong
hill tracts and Tunkhungya of Ahom in Assam who are
Tangchangya chronologically from Burma (Myanmar) at one
stage of time. Its name from the village Tungkhung in upper
Assam where they had ancestral residences. Similarly a
group of Ahom people who are called Chakmai, who knows,
what kinship they had with Chakmas of CHT, whose
association with Brahmaputra river valley is supposed to
have come from the foothills of the Himalayan ranges at one
stage of time, that has been passover. The historical
information says the Burmese invaded Assam in 1817 AD
and took possession from 1819 to 1825. It suggest that
Tangchangya (Tungjainya) from 1817 had mixed with
Chakmas (Changma) in CHT and became its sub-groups
while Tunkhungia mixed with Hindu natives in Assam (Tai-
Shan Race). Chakmas in CHT are fluvial on the bank of the
river Karnaphuli. Earlier they were known to be Khyengtha
(Arakanese word) signifies people or nation leaving near
water. In Burmese pronounciation Khy-chaw i.e. Khyeng-
Tha/Chaweng-Tha means Changma. In the written
language it has become Chakma, now in the midst of which
a vast water reservoir of Kaptai Hydo-electric project. A
legendary history of Chakmas suggest that an unseated
royal family member of Sakyas was leading a novish
Buddhist Monk’s life; Moisang raj (Moisang means a
novitiate in religious order) on the river valley Matamuri
in the South of CHT, near Arakan. A fictionalized song of
Chakmas reflecting it in their Genkhuli songs.
“Aa-long Moisang lalach net
Na aa-long Motsang lalach net
Chal bap bei chal jai champak nagar pheri jai
(English translation)
No more eagerness whether Moisang raj
returns or not.
Brothers and sisters! Let us return to Champak Nagar
30 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
There is a discrete history of Chakmas (originally from ,
the word Chaws of only few families) Sakya race who lived
in Dinnwavati suggest that they had a very sophisticated
society of old families of respectability who were continually
attached to the spot from local association. It remains
unknown to the modern world. It was noted by the famous
British scholar R. Beileu Pemberton in his report on the
eastern frontier of British India in the Imperial Gazetteer.
At Dinnwadi there was an immense master piece Buddha
shrine dated back to early British era. It was taken to
Mandalay in 1785. It is indicative that Buddhism entered
much earlier and has deep relevance to Myanmar history.
The natives of this area are deeply consumed by the passion
and reverence to the image of the living Buddha
(Mahamuni). The prowess of Buddhism entered interior
betes through this route of interactions. Risley in his
book ‘Tribes and Caste of Bengal’ published in 1891 described
Chakmas as a Lohitic Tribe of CHT. In trying to examine
the cae of their being called Lohitic, Fridrich Miller and
other German anthropologists hold that the term Lohotic
applies to the Chakmas because of their association with
Brahmaputra river to the bank from which they are
supposed to have come from the foothills of the Himalayas
region which has been departed from mind, but it is still
stored in the brain in a subjective manner. Chakmas bear
a distinct Mongolian spot, a deep pigment commonly present
in the sacral region which generally disappears soon after
birth. Also, a fold of skin often called ‘Mongoloid fold’
extending from the eye lid over the inner cantus of the eye.
The actual barometer of their oneness is to be seem in their
physiognomic features and other characteristics which
enshrine in their tradition and linguistic similarity of
Burmese (Myanmar), Cambodian, Laos, Thailand and Shans
(state in China). Their past is enshrined in the present
perceptions which corresponds in the Chakmas. The present
Progenetory 31
is the continuation of the past. It can be distinctively seen
in the religious practices and syndrome of the Chakmas.
They all preserve Buddhism in inter-subjected world of
many nations. In this region there was no such rigid outline
of nations since the ancient times of Buddha’a era (560-480
BC). People moved freely which is fictionalized in their
memories. In a sense people were living in a heterogeneous
society in different group’s very peacefully. Categorically
they all belong to the Sakya genealogy. In historical and
cultural realities Sakyans are the people whose ardent faith
was in Buddhism. In its present configuration its true
reflection is being diluted. The aspiration of the indigenous
Buddhist in this region is to bring Buddhism through
enlightened interactions internationally. In India
Buddhist means they are out of power poor and in misery.
Giving compassionate love is the foundation stone of
Buddhism.
Erection of Stupa over Buddha’s Remains
As gleaned from the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, as it
transcendents, the actual events surrounding the death of
the Buddha are remarkable. The Sutta concludes with an
account of an elaborate funeral and the distribution of the
bones and ashes of the Buddha to the nine (9) influential
Buddha clans and individuals (Buddha’s time), who vow to
erect monuments (stupa) over the remains. The erection of
stupa is religiously a very notable worthy task but too
expensive for poorer communities/nations. Resourceful
people in the world are lending their hand for it to many
disadvantaged Buddhist communities/nations with love and
compassion. Needless to say that the Chakmas are in an
impoverished condition and hard up, but yet many of them
are in absorbed in spreading the message of Matriya
(friendship) the distinctive novelty of Buddhism. (Keeping
one’s nose clean).
32 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Holistic World
The greatest God is love and compassion power of regions
and the path to reach through the Union of mind with the
whole nature, holistic world. It is being influenced by self
interested people in ambiguous ways and world peace 1s
being devastated bringing ill fate to human being. In spite
of the fact human beings originated from nature, we
deliberately take no notice of it. Life is an evolution, “it is
continuous adjustment of internal relation to external
relations.” Synchronization of the holistic world where
everything has some intrinsic value.
Chakma Rajas
The list of Chakma Rajas is as under :
1. Raja Bijoygiri of Chakmas Legendary history
2. Jabbar Khan 1686 AD
3. Jallal Khan 1706 AD
4. Fateh Khan 1713 AD
5. Shermust 1731 AD
6. Sher Daulat Khan II 1758 AD
7. Ramu Khan 1773 AD
8. Jan Baksh Khan 1782 AD
9. Dharm Baksh Khan 1818 AD
10. Kalindi Rani 1855 AD
11. Bhuban Mohon Roy 1876-1934 AD
12. Nalinaksh 1902-1951 AD
13. Tridiv Roy now in Pakistan 1933
14. Devasish Roy (notionally
chieftain Bangladesh) 1959
Genealogy
They have been claiming substantively from history to
Sakya genealogy. Genetic research'in modern population
Progenetory 93
reveals that the same paternal Y-Chromosome (hereditary
structure in living cells) haplo group represents a genetic
linage currently found in central western and South Asia
and in Slavic population of Europe. The simplest explanation
of this distribution involves this Y-Chromosome mutation
originating in people of the Kurgan — building culture of pre-
historic Scythia. Scythians were a nomadic tribe in central
Asia in the olden age. Recent genetic mapping of the Indian
population suggest that the ancient Vedic may well tell an
accurate tale of an indigenous Indian (Dravidian) population
conquered by invading tribes from Central Asia who became
the high caste Brahmans. The Brahmans, some recent
studies suggest, carry genetic marks closer to those of
Central Asia and Asia Minor (Anatolia) than of Southern
India. In Tamil language the world Pariah and Sakya are
synonyms meaning untouchable caste. The author of the
famous classic book The Thirukural was a Pariah and the
book is an epitome of Tripitaka sacred religious book of
Theravada Buddhism. People in the Indian sub-continent
had intermingled and become varied identities (Bahujan),
many of them claiming to be from Sakya line. During the
Mughal period, Jadu, son of Raja Kans (Khan), the only
Hindu king in Bengal embraced the Muhammadan religion
in order to be allowed to succeed his father. In Bengal many
Hindus became Muslims after Maghs (Arakanese) passed
through their homes and so caused them to be outcasted.
Chakmas adopted Khan Title to get favour from ruling
powers. The title Khan means the head of a tribal group of
people (feudal) similar to Chenghis Khan in China. In the
past, Rajnagar was the capital of the Chakma King
now in Chittagong district. The British authorities put them
on the sential guards on the distant hills to face the
brunt of barbarous: attacks of fierce tribes on the British
subjects.
“The principal creek near Babootoung hills throw off two
branches which run through and are crossed by lofty wooden
34 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
bridges; a good deal out of repair. On the southern side of
the principal street which runs east and west, are the ruins
of the ancient palace and fort, consisting of the triple square
enclosure of stone and brick wall, connected with lime; the
stone having apparently been originally employed in the
construction and the subsequent repair effected with bricks
and the work altogether is of considerable extent, and the
labour bestowed in connecting the different detached hills
by curtain of stones and brick walls must have been
immense. They are now in a dilapidated state and as sites
more favourably situated have been selected for occupation
by the civil and military authorities of the province, it can
nover be an object of importance to repair these works. The
inhabitants of the town may be estimated at from eight to
ten thousand, and they consist principally of old families of
respectability who are continuously attached to the spot
from local association.”
The Chaws were consisting of only a few families. All
the tribes were divided into separate clans, often at deadly
feud with each other.
British Burma and its People by Capt CJFS Forbes
(1878) published by John Murray, London.
From the Commissioner of 16th Division
and Sudder Board
The Collector of Chittagong
Sir,
I hope the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your
letter of the 24th instant together with copy of the order of
the civil court called for by my letter of the 22nd instant No.
789.
(2) It appears that on the death of the late Raja
Dharam- bux Khan in 1832 the civil court recognized the
succession of Ranee Kalindee to his lands and possession and
Progenetory 35
on the 27th March 1833, the Colletor recommended “that she
should be left in charge of the Property” and that the estates
should be recorded in “her name”. The Commissioner doubted
her capacity to manage the property, but it appears her
incapacity was considered established because she refused
to engage for some No-abad lands the justness of the
essessment of which she denied.
(3) In all parts of India these Jungles Rajahs are exempt
from devision under the Hindu law of succession, and it
appears to me in every account desirable that the integrity
of the Raja should be preserved and opportunities embraced
of strange-thening the hands of these border Rajahs instead
of weakening their authority. We can only rule in the hills
by their means and they can be of use only when strong.
I have the honour to be
Commissioner Office
Chittagong
The 26th August 1842
Sir
S/d Henry Ricketts.
Commissioner and Revenue Sudder Board
CHT Lineage from Champanagar Bihar
The tribe consider themselves descendants of emigrants
from Bihar who settled in the Chittagong District in the days
of the Arakanese kings. The assistance of Brahmans has
been invoked and the following history compiled. Some
centuries ago there reigned at a place called Champanagar ~
in Bihar a Kshatriya King of the Surjya or Sun race. He
had two sons, Bijoygiri and Samagiri. Bijoygiri at the head
of an army started forth to conquer new worlds, and crossing
the river Meghna, which is described as a sea, he marched
against the Arakanese forces and defeated them. Bijoygiri
now prepared to return home, but news reached him that
36 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
his father had died, and that his younger brother Samagiri
had usurped the throne. In consequence Bijoy made terms
with the Arakanese kings and settled down in the
neighbourhood of the Naaf river to the south of the
Chittagong District. His people intermarried with the
Arakanese and gradually became converts to Buddhism.
They subsequently migrated to the valley of the Matamuri
river, where traces of their occupancy in the shape of thanks
and ruined buildings still exist. Here Bijoygiri raised four
of his Captains by name Dhurjiya, Phurjiya, Dhabana and
Piabhanga to the rank of Diwans or managers to assist him
in ruling the country. The last of the Champanagar line of
chiefs was Sher Daulat, nicknamed the “Pagla” or madman.
He was credited with supernatural powers and was supposed
to purify himself from sin, by removing his inside, washing
and replacing the same. The curiosity of his wife was
aroused, and when spying upon him she was discovered by
the Chief, who in his rage slew her and the whole of his
family. His eccentricities and tyranny grew so great that his
people finally assassinated him, and fearing the
consequences removed themselves further north and
settled in the neighbourhood of Rangonea on the
Karnaphuli river.
Chittagong Hill Tracts page 22—R.H. Sneyd
Hutchinson, Indian Police (1978), Vivek Publishing
Company, Delhi
Study on the Lost Sakya Tribe
A study is being carried out on the origin of Sakya people
who claim a common heritage going back to the times of
Gautama Buddha himself. This hypothesis is being studied
using genetic variation on the Y-chromosome and other
disciplines of knowledge like archaeology, history, genetic
anthropology and that might open up light on this study.
This is being carried out under the leadership of Dr. Mark,
Progenetory 37
University College, London. This research study is approved
by the joint university college of London/University college
London Hospital committees on the Ethics of Human
research (study number 99/0196).
As you will know, the Sakya people claim a common
heritage going back to the times of Buddha himself. We
would like to test this hypothesis using genetic variation on
the Y-chromosome. The Y-chromosome is only present in
males and as such, is only passed on from father to son.
Because changes occasionally occur in the Y-chromosome
when it is passed on from father to son, the Y-chromosomes
of men often differ. However, these changes are very rare.
Consequently, if two men share a recent common ancestor
through the male line, then we would expect their Y-
chromosomes to be either identical or very similar. The same
logic can be applied to whole populations (of men). If two
populations are descended from one original source
population, then we would expect that the distribution of
different Y-chromosome types in the two descendent
populations to be very similar. Furthermore, we would
expect that the distribution of different Y-chromosome types
would be more different the longer ago two populations
share a common ancestral population.
In the case of the Sakya, if their beliefs about a common
origin are true, then we would expect the Y-chromosomes
of different Sakya populations to be more similar to one
another that they are to their non-Sakya neighbours. Thus
to test the hypothesis, it is essential that we have samples
not only from Sakya but also from non-Sakya people who
live near the Sakya people.
We have already looked at a number of Sakya and non-
Sakya populations in India and the general picture that
emerges is that the Sakya people are indeed more similar
to one another than are to their non-Sakya neighbours,
38 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
As information received on 17.10.07 from Dr. Mark
Thomas CVL, one post doctoral fellow had joined in
analysing the genetic data for some years. This study is not
guaranted but is encouraging.
The famous British scholar R. Beileau Pemberton in his
report on the Eastern Frontier of British India had
acknowledged that near the ancient capital Dhanyavati,
there stood at the head of inferior branch of the Gat-shaha
or Kolodyne about 50 miles from Akyab a principal city
known as Babootoung.
Abhiraja with his Sakyan clanmen came from
Kapilavastu in India founded Tagaung 850 BC and
Kyaukpadaung in Arakan 825 BC. Tagaung was overthrown
by the Chinese about 600 BC, and its people then founded
old Pagan; they went further south also, founded in 443
B.C., Prome, a glorious city which, under the great king
Duttapaung 443-373 B.C. contained a splendid court and
3,000 Buddhist monks. Meanwhile Buddha himself had
visited Legaing and Shwesettaw (in Minbu district), as is
borne out by the existence of Kyaungdawaya pagoda, and
of his two footprints, each three cubits long, at Shwesettaw;
on his way back he passed by Prome—witness the Po-u-
daung pagoda there, and look at the very hill where he
stopped, Tankyidaung (to be distinguished from its
namesake opposite Pagan).
History of Burma—G.E. Harvey Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.
1967 page 307.
| References
1. Abhiraja Sakyan king, History of Burma by G.E. Harvey,
Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 1967.
2. Dhanyavati in Myanmar in Arakan by R. Beileau
Pemberton.
3. A Study on the Lost Sakya Tribe in the Department of
Biology, University College, London.
Progenetory
For further informations please contact :
Dr. Mark G. Thomas
Department of Biology
University College London
Wolfson House
4 Stephenson Way
London
NW12HE
Tel : ++44(0) 207 679 7418 (int. 2-7418)
Fax : +444 (0) 207 6795052
Mobile : 07973 725955
Email : m.thomas@ucl.ac.uk
Web:ww.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/
4. Buddhist India by T.W. Rhys Davids.
2
Sprinking of Chakmas
Back in the early times Chakmas lived at Alikadam in
the south of CHT near the mountain stream, Matamuri’,
surrounded by a cluster of champa trees- a kind of flowering
tree (botanical name: Michelia Champaca Linn). They
moved it up at a place in Rangoonia (Rajnagar, Sakyapur)
around 16th century A.D. at a time, when Chittagong was
a battle place of struggle of supremacy in Bengal between
the raja of Arakan and Bengal rulers. For administrative
convenience when the British took over, they shifted
Chakmas at Rangamati, the last sentinel border post in this
region to protect the British civilians from attack of distant
tribes (the area beyond this was unknown at that time).
Among the Chakma rulers, the most spirited Chakma queen
was Kalindi Rani* whose incure impression at (1844-1873).
She stood by the side of the British government during the
sepoy mutiny’. The British government had a great
admiration of her abilities. In 1857, she delivered up some
of the sepoys, of the native regiment that mutinied at
Chittagong and had taken themselves to the hills to avoid
retribution, otherwise, for forty years she proved a thorn in
the side of the government. She exercised a very great
influence over her tribe and was greatly feared*. During her
reign she drove away Rouli system corrupt, fictitious
Buddhist religious practices and brought home Therovada
Buddhism which enshrine in their traditions with grand
patronage during her period. Much changeability had taken
place during her reign, which is enormously visible in the
modern times. It caused quite a stir in the community. In
42 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
1860 AD, the Chakma Kingdom®® was divided into two
halves: I. Chittagong II. Hill tracts of Chittagong (CHT).
The former part was included into Bengal as a regulated
district, while the later part was retained as non-regulated
district (CHT) comprises a total of 5,093 sq. miles (13,189
km.) which is about 1/10th of the total area of Bangladesh
with over 1.325 million population (1,700 million indigenous
people and 0.625 million permanent Bengali Muslims,
infiltrated and politically transmigrated Bengali Muslims
settlers). It shares borders with Myanmar on the south and
southeast. India on the north and northeast and Chittagong
district on the west. It is completely different in physical
features, agriculture practices and soil conditions from the
rest of the countries with mountains and beautiful
landscapes. CHT is located between 21°-40' degrees and 23°-
47’ degrees north latitude and 91°-41' degrees and 92°-42'
degrees east longitude. It is a unique territory with
mountains and beautiful landscapes and socio-economically
and culturally completely different from the rest of the
Bangladesh. It roughly runs from north to south for 280
kms. From time immemorial the CHT has been the home to
eleven indigenous ethnic peoples. They collectively identify
themselves as the Jumma people (High landers), the first
people of the CHT. They are the Chakma, Marma, Tripura,
Tanchangya, Murung, Lushai, Khumi, Chak, Khyang,
Bawn, and Pankhua. Beside, a very small numbers of
descendents of Assamese and Gorkhas also lived in there.
The Jumma people are distinct and different from the
majority Bengali people of Bangladesh in respect of race,
language, culture, heritage and religion.
In 1892, the Chakma Chief divided CHT into 9 (nine)
circles, 33 blocks (Taluks) and a number of Mouzas (taxation
areas), as below : |
‘SLNo. Name of circle Head of circle
L; Kachalong Indrajoy Dewan
2, Chengi Nila Chandra Dewan
3... Mahaphrum Raj Chandra Dewan
Sprinking of Chakmas 43
4, Satta Kamalakha Chaudhury
5. [chamati Sarat Chandra Roangza
6. Rangamati Krishna Chandra Dewan
qs Subalong Trilochan Dewan
8. Barkal Kumar Romani Mohan Dewan
9. Khas Rajar Area Raja Bhuban Mohan
The head of each ‘Taluk’ was designated as Talukdar,
in the pass over era. During the 2nd World War, the eastern
war front was in Burma. For the Logistical support in the
war front, the British government maintained a track called
Lunglei to Haka (now Mizoram to Myanmar) whose
supporting base was through Demagiri, now Tlabung in
Mizoram and Rangamati now in Bangladesh which
strengthened the defence at this region a strategic spot in
the war.
Allocation of CHT to Pakistan
CHT was clandestinely gifted to Pakistan as, it was the
outcome of negotiations on 16th August 1947 between two
just downed dominiom governments of India and Pakistan
exchanging Sikh dominated area Zira and Ferozpur of
Punjab to CHT (indigenous Buddhist area) of the erstwhile
East Bengal and it was declared on 17th August on 12th
August 1947, Sir Cyril Radcliffe’s Bengal Award contined the
allocation of CHT to Pakistan Mr. Vallabh Bhai Patel, Indian
National leader sensed it and said any award against weight
of local opinion and terms of reference should be considered
a collusive or partisan award and will have to be repudiated.
On 16th August 1947, Pandit Nehru said he had never
considered that alloction of CHT to East Bengal (Pakistan)
was possible under the terms of refence of the Boundary
Commission. He and his colleagues had assured the local
chief and leaders of CHT that there was no question of CHT
being included in Pakistan, the reason being CHT’s
population was 97 per cent Buddhist and Hindus. On
4d Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
religious and cultural grounds CHT should form part of
India. But later, on the ground that the whole economic life
of the people of CHT depends upon Kast Bengal and it would
be disastrous for the people themselves to be cut off from
East Bengal. But infact it was externalization of quagmire
of Chakmas. Victim of portion see page 235. In a sance,
Chittagong, the only port of East Bengal also depends upon
CHT. Finally, Mountbatten said “I assume that the fate of
Hill Tracts would be a matter for negation between two
dominion govt's or there constituent Assemblies and not for
decision of Boundary Commission”. It was a very sinking
feeling news for the Buddhist as it was against the norms
of partition of Indian sub-continent, that Chakmas could
never buoy up. The detailed text of the constitutional
relations between Britain and India (transfer of power
edited by Pendemal Moon, Her Majestic’s stationary office,
Vol. no. IX, XI and XI, full text are given in the
accompanying enclosure’. page 98-127 The original
Buddhists of India were caught in the cross-fire between the
larger religious communities Hindu and Muslims and their
fate was crushed between the hammer and anvil by then
the tallest leaders of India and Pakistan and that the trauma
of the Buddhist seems to be never ending on the insinuating
feeling of politicians.
Erstwhile Pakistani Rule
The Pakistani government was inclined to suspect from
its very birth the indigenous Chakmas with an eye of
mistrust as anti-Pakistani as well anti-Islamic. They became
waring, wide awake when CHT police force was disbanded
and the native offices were transferred to different places
outside CHT, wheareas more Bengali Muslim officers were
brought in with spurious motives. This facilitated
enticement to large number of Muslim infiltration. This
needed amendment of CHT regulations of 1900 A.D. It was
passed against the will of the indigenous people. Tribal
Sprinking of Chakmas 45
Nationals through abrogation of “Excluded the Area” status
act of CHT in 1963. The indigenous tribals lost their
ancestral land and right privileges that were granted to
them. In the final outcome, the indigenous people’s
homeland became the living space for Muslims from the
plains. The tribals are now outnumbered with the influx
from the plains and paving the road for many under the
patronage of the government. In August, 1947, when India
was partitioned the tribal population of the district was 97.5
per cent and the Bengalis 2.5 per cent as per 1941 census.
At present the tribal population is 4,98,595 and the Bengali
population is 4,68,825 i.e. percentage of tribal population is
51.5% while the percentage of Bengali population is 48.5%
(CHT area 13,181 sq. km. population 9,67,420 as per census
1991). During the last fifty years, the tribal population has
not doubled, whereas during the same period Bengal
population increased by 68.22 times. The reaction of the
people of CHT against the nefarious policy of Pakistan was
alarming. As a result of repressive measures followed by
Pakistan government, discontentment and resentment was
simmering throughout CHT. In 1964, CHT was placed under
the direct administration of central (west) Pakistan, vesting
more powers to the Muslim bureaucrat. Not only that, they
started interfering with the inner domestic and local matters
of the tribals, but also began acting behind the scene. At one
instance while Raja Tridiv Roy®, was exercising his justice
in his local court (Raj-darbur), he was interfered with by the
hooliganist Bengalist. It was due to the timely action by then
British Dy. Commissioner Angus Hume of CHT, he was
saved and it turned to be a big issue in the government. A
Hume had to resign from his service for protecting the
Chakma chief. There was another incident. In 1970, when
some ten thousand Tribals were evicted from Reing Khyong
Reserve forest and nearby areas, as the area was fixed for
the Mizo rebels, who used the area to develop massive
guerilla training bases for them and other insurgent groups
46 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
from north-east India. This eviction of the tribal people
created bitterness between the Chakma Chief Tridiv Roy and
the then Deputy Commissioner, CHT. There was no motherly
feelings for too the natives in the government. Western
educated Islamic people, with modern political consciousness
and thinking had thought of ways of withstanding the
repressive policy of Pakistan government. There was
nothing common of Chakmas with the rest of West and East
Pakistan in language, religion, culture, nor psychological
makeup. Their question was how to overturn the situation
and what to do at the ground site. The government decided
to inundate the area in the pretext of modernization of
erstwhile East Pakistan by power generation at Kaptai at
the cost of sacrificing the safety and welfare of the ethnic
Buddhist. In the name of so called industrial development,
government of Pakistan built the Kaptai Hydro Electric
Project on the Karnaphulli river in the heartland of
indigenous Chakmas which flooded 1.036 km of land and
submerged 54% (54,000 acres) of agricultural land and also
displaced about 100,000 (one hundred thousand) people from
their ancestral hearth and homes for good. Many animals
rapidly depleted as reservoir caused serious damage to the
ecosystem of CHT resulting in effacement who failed to grow
to the environment. Many fled to India and Myanmar.
Those disposed of who had migrated to Arunachal Pradesh
(in India), are yet to be treated at par with the natives in
receiving benefits from the government, as they are not yet
granted full citizenship*” rights in India. They seem to
belong to another era. India government could have taken
up the issue to set the record straight of CHT at the time of
liberation of erstwhile East-Bengal now Bangladesh in 1971.
It has just abandoned ethnic Buddhist hill tribe, as the
victim of silence”.
Manobendra Narayan Larma (1939-83) President and
founder of the Parbatya Chattagram Jana Samhati Samiti
Sprinking of Chakmas 47
(PCJSS), was a student leader in early sixties. He was the
torch bearer of the Chakmas of CHT and rated a notch above
the rest of notables till the present day. In an instance the
PCJSS movement instilled confidence in all the ranks of the
group, but following the release of Shantu Larma from army
captivity, as it shaked some of its ranks of their position. On
10th November, 1983 Manobendra Narayan Larma met his
end in a shoot out overstrife in his party over some
disillusionment muttering threats at the commanders’ level
when Mr. Larma wanted to purge the top cops. The internal
conflict situation reached to a point extreme gravity ata
sanctuary which hugs on the borders of Tripura with
Bangladesh. The overall development of the indigeous people
had no place in the mind of Bangladesh national leaders.
In order to materialise its evil design and breaking down
the economic backbone of CHT.
Bangla Rule (Liberation War of East Pakistan)
M.N. Larma awakened the political awareness among
the indigenous tribes in CHT. In 1970, he was elected in the
East Pakistan Provincial Assembly (MPA). The Chakma
Chief, Tridiv Roy also contested the election of Pakistan
National Assembly as independent held in 1969 and was
elected as member of National Assembly (MNA). The Indo-
Pakistan War started on 3rd December, 1971 and on 4th
December Pakistani army was withdrawn from Pansuri
area of CHT. On 5th December Bangladesh forces (Mukti
Bahani) entered Pansuri and stormed and ransacked the
whole area when the locals came out to welcome the Bengali
forces. They slashed to earth with their big daos eighteen
(18) tribals before their eyes in broad daylight. The women
could get no safe place to escape from rape. It was a dreadful
situation with the arrival of Mukti Bahini. On 14th
December, they unleashed another wave of killing, looting,
arson on their way to Khagarachari (killing 22 tribals
including women and children and burnt down atleast 176
houses). A number of young males were shot dead on the
48 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
ground of their allegation that they supported Pakistani
soldiers and some were beaten to death. (CHT Hill people
were branded as pro- Pakistani). The matter continued to
worsen unabated in the CHT. At Rangamati the Chakma
Raj family was saved only by the timely intervention of the
Indian Army. Earlier Tridiv Roy had moved to Pakistan
before the defeat of Pakistan Army in the east. As the
situation deteriorated of inhuman atrocities
incomprehensible sufferings many fled from CHT at the cost
of lives. They were on the horns of dilemma as the horror
of liberation was beyond description.
Bangladesh emerged as an independent state on 16th
December 1971. The victorious Mukti Bahini (Freedom-
Fighter) entered into CHT with vengeance and communal
hatred, creating a thorny situation region throughout CHT.
The Mukti Bahini fell upon the innocent Jumma people,
killing, arsoning and raping women, burning house and
villages, victimizing and terrorising the inhabitants who
were forced to take refuge in the woods. In 1973, after the
Ist general election results in favour of Awami League under
the leadership of seikh Mujibur Rahman in the newly
liberated Bangladesh, he was of the belief of in a unified
political system called BAKSHAL (Bangladesh Krishak
Sramik Awami League) that divided the whole Territory into
64 administrative divisions under which CHT was divided
into three Hill districts with H.Q. at Rangamali,
Khagarachari and Bandarban, unfortunately, it created a
strong tirade against government, consequence to this an
Army uprising took place on 15th August, 1975, that
massacred the whole family of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
(except the daughters who were abroad). The indigenous
people have been a fractured group in CHT, with
~despondency and dependency. In 1972, two delegations of
indigenous tribal groups from CHT met the President, the
Sprinking of Chakmas 49
Prime Minister, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and
submitted a memorandum with four demands :
(1) Provincial Autonomy for CHT with legislature of its
own;
(2) Retention of CHT regulation of 1900 in the
Bangladesh constitution;
(3) Retention of Tribal chief’s office;
(4) Constitutional provisions restricting the amendment
of the 1900 regulation and imposition of a ban on the
influx of non-tribal people into CHT.
The delegates returned with worry on the back of their
mind as their demands were rejected. Prior to it,
Bangabandhu on his return from Pakistani jail,.sent
Rajmata Benita Roy to New York to bring back her son Tridiv
Roy (at that time he was chief deligate of Pakistan in the
U.N. Assembly) to Bangladesh but the latter refused to come
back. At that time the newly liberated Bangladesh was under
the protege of the government of India, which is known for
its Hindu characteristics. They do not consider Buddhism in
the same equity with them as Gautama Buddha had
insulatd denying the authority of Vedas-Indo Aryan Vedic
scriptures/religion, Vedas classification of people. It was
scrupulously seen, how the Government of India exchanged
CHT with Zira and Ferozpur in Punjab in Pakistan, despite
repeated assurance given to the people of CHT by the Hindu
Leaders that their homeland will be in the fold of India. So,
the Chakma chief was reminiscing the past and therefore,
not inclined to return to Bangladesh/India as happened in
1947. Tridiv Roy was not likely to be off to Bangladesh, as
he was reckoning treachery and was not deflected by
promises and perfidiousness. He kept his name on the side
of Z.A. Bhutto as he was friends with him. But
unfortunately, he came to an end stroke of ill lucks enforced
50 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
by the military rulers. Had it not taken place the fate of
thakmas would have much brighter at this period of time,
alee life is now at their peril. When the constitutional
movement ended in failure to safeguard the national interest
of the people of CHT and became the victims of step motherly
treatment. Under the leadership of M.N. Larma (PCJSS),
“a parallel administration” (insurgency militancy movement
tactic) was set up in CHT and the movement took new shape
and dimensions. The government took a strong arm policy
to deal with insurgents with vigorousness in killing and
brutality on the pretext that “enemies can not be seen in
the operation”. The new nation Bangladesh sank in soul-
subduing situation after the assassination of Banga Bandhu
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman with his family members in
August, 1975. In November, Chief Justice Abusadat
Mohammad Sayam became President and Chief Martial Law
Administrator and Mrs. Binita Roy, Mother of Tridiv Roy
(Chakma Chief) was made advisor to the President Sayam
for up beating a good feelings and to ward off political
waywardness and volatility, but on the reverse government
put the cart before the horse by fortification of security forces
and BDR Posts. The police station were many folded and
Armed Police and Ansars were posted, while armed licences
from the tribals were withdrawn and their arms were seized.
Bengali families from the plains were brought in and set
against the tribals in CHT. Henceforth, occasional
skirmishes took place between the forces and the Shanti
Bahini (peaceforce) armed wing of PCJSS. Several
representations were made to successive administrator
(rulers) of the country, but it ended unsuccessful. In 1980
the government of Ziaur Rahman was approached for the
basic demands of CHT, but it again ended without result.
Since, 1979, the Bangladesh government started to settle
Bengali Muslims from the plain districts into CHT. Their
total number rose to 80,000 families with a population of 4
Sprinking of Chakmas 51
lakhs with the outnumbering of indigenous Jumma people
with the objective for using them as human shield. The
government declared that each settler family will be given
5 acres of hilly land, 4 acres of plain and bumpy land and
2.5 acres of paddy land and rations for unlimited period. The
CHT covers 5,093 sq. miles or about 10 per cent of land area
of Bangladesh. The categories of which can be classified as
under :
(1) land suitable for rice cultivation — 77,00 acres 2%.
(2) land suitable for horticulture — 6,70,000 acres 21%.
(3) land suitable for forest only — 16,00,000 acres 51%.
(4) Reserved forest — 8,00,000 acres 26%.
Thus, if all the cultivable lands of the tribal people were
taken over, it would fail to meet the demand. So government
created a grim death situation over the possession of land,
as the new Muslim settlers were given only paper
documents against the land that were already cultivated by
indigenous people. So the settlers started to forcibly occupy
the indigenous Jumma peoples land under protection of
powerful authorities in the government. In May 1985,
Survival International cited notes on genocide in CHT with
new evidence — Human Rights violation on women, old and
children. In April 1992, the Logang massacre in which a few
hundred Jumma people were held by security forces and
Bengali settlers. And again in November 1993 at Naniachari
similar massacre had taken place.
The international work group for indigenous affairs,
Denmark cited notes below (extract) :
Women
“There are some pretty girls there.”
“Then tribal women very beautiful and they are freez.”
52 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
These were remarks by military officers. Tribal women
are especially attractive and exotic to them. They move
around more freely and are not bound by the same cultural
and religious impositions that restrict the freedom of
movement of Muslims women. These culture differences
combined with the military presence and the increasing
domination of Bengali Muslim culture in the CHT have
made the tribal women more exposed to sexual predatory
and insidious attacks. They were perpetually on the age of
brutality, impetuousness.
Rape
A woman who is now in Tripura told the Commission:
About 50 army personnel came in the night and rounded
up the whole village and gathered us in one place. In the
morning all the men were arrested. I was tied up hands and
legs, naked. They raped me. There were three women there.
They raped me in front of my father-in-law. After that we
were tied up together, naked facing each other. Then they
left. Three other girls were raped in front of me. This
happened in the month of Ashar (June/July) of 1985. One
pathetic tale of Kalpana Chakma women student leader as
cited below. On the night of 11th to 12th June, 1996,
Organizing Secretary of the Hill women Federation,
Kalpana Chakma (23) was abducted from her home in
- Lallyagona Village, in Rangamati District by a group of
armed plain clothed security personnel till date she remains
untraced.
The growth rate of population and household in CHT as
cited by Arun Shourie in his book ‘A Secular Agenda’ as
under.
Demographic Profile
The demographic picture in the three districts of the
CHT is different from national spectrum. The following
Sprinking of Chakmas 53
statistics from 1991 census of Bangladesh throws significant
light.
National Growth of population 2.02%
National Growth of households 2.09%
Growth Rate of Population and Households (1991
Census)
District Growth in
Population Households
Khagrachari 2.2% 4.5%
Rangamati 4.1% 5.3%
Banderban 3.6% 4.3%
The higher growth rates of both population and
households in Rangamati and Banderban Districts are due
to settlement of Bengali Muslims from plains districts. The
lower growth rate in Khagrachari district is due to presence
of nearly 56,000 Chakma refugees in Tripura since 1986.
The higher growth of households in this district only
underscores settlement of Muslims from outside which is
fast reducing the majority of Non-Muslim tribals in the
CHTs. This has heightened insecurity of the tribals fueling
Chakma insurgency over the years. The successive
government had dialogue with the PCJSS for resolving the
CHT problem through political means, but it ended in
failure, as the envision was of dominance on the indigenous
Jhummas and there was no dealing of accelerated progress
and self right towards equality. In June 1996, Sheikh Hasina
became the Prime Minister of the country. A 12-member
National Committee on CHT Affairs headed by the Chief
Whip of the Parliament was formed entering into a political
fray with purposeful manner. On 2nd December, 1997, the
CHT Peace Accord was signed between the government and
the PCJSS ending more than two decades of old armed
54 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
struggle of Self determination, but it led to a worsening of
the situation. It has created a creamy-layer of one Minister,
two Dy. Ministers and four public representatives equivalent
to Dy. Ministers for the upliftment of CHT and to deliever
goods to the needy. It is now the job of elected leaders to
prune the whole matter in a skillful way. But there has been
no honest delivery of re-settlement scheme of Shanti Bahini
who had laid down arms, rather it has created flawed
administration in the hands of manipulative leaders that
created a dreadful impact.
Taking the leaf from Indian constitutional provision for
setting up Autonomous council for reflection of internal
freedom for ethnic minorities, the Bangladesh government
established three councils in the CHT. But the contention
of it remained unmaterialized till date. Till recently, there
was no elected government in Bangladesh, the president was
functioning on the advisory committee of all the ministeries
whose Chief advisor was Dr. Fakiruddin Ahmed. Mr.
Devasish Roy, notionally the Chakma Chief was the special
advisor to the chief advisore Dr. Fakiruddin Ahmed on CHT
ministry, comprised of the following :
1. Chairman, CHT Regional Council
2. Chairman Khagarachari Hill District Council
3. Chairman Rangamati Hill District Council
4. Chairman, Bandarkan Hill District Council
5. Chairman, CHT Development Board
In addition to it, there are 6 (six) leading professionals/
personalities in the committee. The government machineries
successfully created internecine between the members of
PCJSS and spliting it into 2 (two) factions—1. Lamba and
2. Badi (factive meaning freedom on long wend policy and
short wend policy) groups disalliance of a faction which is
now known to be united peoples democratic form (UPDF),
under the leadership of Prasit Bikash Khisha, the follower
Sprinking of Chakmas 55
of rival groups. It is believed they have undergone a change
of hearts and now on the verge of group mass slaughter.
Revolution is an ambiguous thing. The success is
generally proportionate to the power of adoptation and to
the re-adoptation within then of what they rebelled against.
The situation of Chakmas in CHT, undermines the problem
of the indigineous Communities all over. Will there be any
realistic solution in hand of radicals? Will they ever find
solution ? For it these might have lot of fronts.
MIZORAM
A chip of Chakmas have been living in the erstwhile Mizo
District (now Mizoram) that abuts on the south- western part
of CHT since ages. This now constitutes a part of the region
of North-East India, which has amalgamated to then Assam
province for administrative conveniences by the British
colonial rules, while CHT was in the Bengal province, till 1954
AD, these were pre-dominance of Chakmas in the area. Itis
recorded that a person by name Labamoni Chakma was the
chief of Lokhisury under the acquisition of chief right’s let of
Assam, he lost the land ownership right by receiving a
compensation of Rs. 3,840.”
The word meaning Mizo (Highlander) and Ram meaning
land; Mizoram (land for Highlanders). On this analogy
Chakmas fall in the terminology of Mizo. But they are the
religious linguistic minority constituting 10 per cent of the
total population of Mizoram. Historically, they are connected
with this land by the pathway of their habitual living. Mizos
are moved with pre-conceived notion of a Mosaical or Jewish
origin that induces greater strength in them of unification
with western culture and civilization. While Chakmas of
Mizoram are economically ethnologically at the backyard of
modern civilization with sub-standard level of education and
poor economic condition. For Mizos, it helps them to draw
the attention of the world community and the Central
Government of India in their favour.
56 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Since 1972 AD Chakmas of Mizoram have been divided
into two groups: (one) in the area of the autonomous
Chakma district council which include 30 per cent of them
and the remaining 70 per cent are left outside the area of
the ACDC. Several economic, political, environmental and
social factors are influencing their economic hardships and
backwardness. They are most disadvantaged group of people
in Mizoram. They get disillusioned of their fate when they
turn their eves their brethren in ACDC and see the vasts
difference of the standard of living between the two
communities (Mizos and Chakmas), The material wealth
enjoyed by them has an ocean of difference. This is the result
of the progress Central aid to the State Government There
is no pro-poor delivery policy. There has been a growing
demand for inclusion of all the Chakma areas of Mizoram
into ACDC and to upgrade the status of ACDC to the union
territory, as their has been a vast growth of population in
the ACDC area for factors already mentioned; no absolute
worry for survival in ACDC. They need a new solution to
their problem catching in the services of big powers. The
social pathway of Mizos is community based organization
who are devoted for the upliftment of the whole community
under a centralised body of religious ethos. There is no
success organization for the social upliftment of the
Chakmas. There are no such promotional activities for them.
A social perspective “neither here nor their’!* by
Rosenmary Zoramchani which was published in the North
East Telegraph on Monday 29th September, 1997 throws
some light on the detrimental conditions of the Chakmas in
Mizoram.
The Chakma demand for a separate Union Territory has
precipitated a socio-political crisis in Mizoram, says
Rosenmary Zoramchanil.
Sprinking of Chakmas 57
I need land. I am a farmer, but I do not have ar.y land
to feed my family and earn my livelihood,” says 48 year-old
Binoy Kumar Chakma, surviving on odd jobs and small-
scale trading activities.
Binoy, a father of four, came to Mizoram in 1966 as a
refugee from the neighbouring Chittagong Hill Tracts of
erstwhile East Pakistan, married and settled down to life in
penury. His eldest son, however, is a government employee,
although Binoy is yet to be granted Indian citizenship.
Development has taken a backseat in the areas under
the Chakma Autonomous District Council (CADC) which has
an annual budget of Rs. 6 crore to develop its areas as a
substantial portion of the funds are siphoned off by the
ruling clique of the council.
After a recent visit to the Chakma areas, the committee
on petitions of the Rajya Sabha has made recommendations
to the Centre, which if implemented, may alter the lives of
the inhabitants of Mizoram. The committee has
recommended that “Chakmas should be treated differently
from other refugees, with sympathy and on humanitarian
basis.”
The committee has reasoned that according to the policy
formulated at the time of Partition, since the Chakma
population in the Chittagong Hill Tracts was more than 98
given to India and the Chakmas should have been Indian
citizens.
Bankim Chakma, leader of the Committee for Citizenship
Rights to Chakmas of Arunachal Pradesh, argues that as
far back as 1946 the Chakmas had made formal
representations to the interim Indian government to make
the Chittagong Hill Tracts a part of India. “We do not know
why India did not accept our proposal but were compelled
to become part of East Pakistan.”
The formula for division of the subcontinent stipulated
that the newly-created Pakistan would comprise only the
58 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Muslim-dominated areas while the non-Muslim ones would
be part of India.
The historical blunder of the founding fathers of
independent India has resulted in compounding the ethnic
and other problems of the northeastern region. Valtea, a
member of the Mizo Zirlai Paw], argues: “The Centre should
open discussions with its Bangladesh counterpart to hand
over Chittagong Hill Tracts to India so that the Chakmas
may get back their land and even become a state of the
Indian Union.”
Valtea’s views are echoed by the Chakmas, who have
expressed their wish to become a part of India than even
present-day Bangladesh. “We would not have to seek land
in Mizoram or Arunachal Pradesh if we could get back our
land in the Chittagong Hull Tracts.”
“Like the Jews in the first half of the century, the
Shakmas have also been deprived of their land and were
feccod to disperse to various states in the northeastern
region,” says Parimal Chakma, claiming that “There are
about one lakh Chakmas in Arunachal Pradesh being
victimised by (the Arunachal Pradesh Chief Minister)
Gegong Apang, while about 1.5 lakh-Chakmas are facing
the wrath of Mizos in Mizoram.
Parimal Chakma, a student, claims he belongs to
Mizoram and even has a certificate to prove it. His friends,
however, say he hails from Arunachal Pradesh and had to
fake his father’s name to get admission in a college in
Assam. For all anyone knows he could be from Tripura,
where a large number of Chakmas have also entered the
college based on fake credentials even as the state
government looked the other way on “humanitarian”
grounds.
However, the governments of Tripura, Arunachal
Pradesh and Mizoram are perturbed over the issue of
Chakma citizenship for various reasons. The Chakmas in
Sprinking of Chakmas 59
Tripura were systematically hemmed in by state
administrations to ensure that they could be easily identified
by the dominant community of migrants from erstwhile East
Bengal.
It has been relatively easier for Tripura to deport the
Chakmas to Bangladesh unlike the two tribal states. Unlike
the Arunachal Pradesh, the erstwhile Lushai hills had a few
hundred families of the Chakmas residing in the mountains
adjoining the CHT, making it difficult for the Mizoram
government to evict the hapless tribal community. But the
Mizoram chief minister, Mr. Lalthanhawla, is peeved
at the Centre’s attempts to absorb the ever-increasing
number of Chakmas migrating to the state from
Bangladesh, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh, on
humanitarian grounds.
Lalthanhawla has publicly stated that he is amenable
to the granting of citizenship to the Chakmas who came to
India prior to the Indira-Mujib Pact, 1972, which laid down
the cut-off date for acceptance of all refugees from
Bangladesh who came on or before March 25, 1971.
However, Pu Lalthanhawla has refused to expand the
jurisdiction of the Chakma Autonomous District Council.
Mizoram is a bit larger than neighbouring Tripura with a
total of 21,000 square km of surface area and 98 per cent
Mizo population amounting to nearly 9 lakh.
The Mizoram chief minister has pointed out that
Chakmas originally resident in Mizoram and their
descendants also are legitimately entitled to reside in the
state and avail of facilities provided by the state and district
council administrations.
The Mizo Zirlai Pawl, the student body of Mizoram,
visited the Chakma areas for a head count and also to look
into the antecedents of those claiming to be the original
residents. The figures were so shocking that the state
60 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
government was forced to legitimize its findings through its
The body found out that there were legitimately only
about 40,000 legally acceptable Chakmas, while the rest
were “infiltrators.”
The Mizoram finance minister, Lal Sangzuala, even went
on record saying any Chakma, influential or otherwise,
would be proceeded against as per the law. Among the most
shocking disclosures by the students’ body was that the
Congress legislator and riinister in the Lalthanhawla
ministry, Nirupam Chakma, was also a “foreigner.”
Significantly, Nirupam Chakma has also been suspected
of fomenting the move for a separate Union Territory status
to Chakma-inhabited areas, including the council areas. The
committee has upheld this demand.
Looking Beyond?
“Parliament should consider expansion of the Chakma
Autonomous District Council area considering the population
density, percentage of Chakmas in those areas and their
overall conditions. The council should be put under direct
control of the Centre till living conditions are at par with
the rest of the state.”
The council was primarily created alongwith the Laiu
Autonomous District Council to provide the minority tribes
in Mizoram the right to self-governance and the right to
develop their lands and their people.
The Centre by an amendment to the Sixth Schedule of
the Constitution on December 6, 1988, provided that funds
meant for the district councils should be administered
through the Governor’s office. The deputy commissioner
would be giving the funds on behalf of the governor on the
basis of utilisation certificate issued by the district council.
The fact that these funds were siphoned off by the
respective district council's executive members 1s well-known.
Sprinking of Chakmas 61
The former Assam chief minister, Hiteswar Saikia, in his
capacity as the governor of Mizoram had permitted
profligacy and even institutionalised it as he prepared
Mizoram for elections to the 40-member Legislative Assembly
in January 1989 after a six month’s spell.
His successor, Capt. Williamson Sangma, had little time
for the district councils and it was left to Swaraj Kaushal,
to delve into the corruption charges for political reasons.
He initiated the development process by the district
councils and brought to light the massive fraud perpetuated
by the councils administration. The amendment of the Sixth
Schedule of the Constitution was primarily to ensure that
the state government did not siphon off funds meant for the
district councils.
The increasing number of Chakma migrants from
various places outside Mizoram has therefore made the Rs.
6 crore budget for the 40,000 minority tribals look like a drop
in the ocean. The committee has recommended that “since
the ratio of Chakmas in Mizoram is 1:10 in comparison to
other communities, the council should be allocated funds on
a prorata basis. If the committee recommendation is
implemented, the council should get Rs. 60 crore out of the
Rs. 600 crore state budget. It would raise the per capita
expenditure on the 40,000 Chakmas to Rs. 15,000 per
annum, a dream even for the 9 lakh majority Mizos on
whom the per capita expense at present amounts to Rs. 6,666
only.
Significantly, the Chakmas are the only minority group
demanding a separate Union Territory as a prelude to full-
fledged statehood within the Indian Union. Chakma families
have begun to fan from the council areas towards Tripura
along the Mizoram border with the Chittagong Hill Tracts
in Bangladesh.
The Congress legislators and prominent ministers in the
state Cabinet like Mr. Saikapthianga, Mr. Liasuamar are
62 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
worried over the slow steady infiltration of the Chakmas to
swamp the areas bordering India and Bangladesh to
demand a state carved out of Mizoram in lieu of the
Chittagong Hill Tracts.
With the state preparing for Assembly polls scheduled
in December 1998, the issue of Chakma citizenship and
demand for a Union Territory status are tailormade for the
Mizo National Front, the main Opposition party in the state
and the Congress which has a stranglehold over the Chakma
hill areas to encash on.
Though Lalthanhawla has agreed to grant citizenship
to the Chakmas, who came prior to March 25, 1971, the Mizo
are still perturbed by the recommendations of the committee
that those born in India should also be granted Indian
citizenship. Given the sympathetic attitude of the Chakma
Autonomous District Council authorities, acquiring a
certificate of birth in Mizoram for the right price is no big
deal. However, the Mizoram government has not been
allowed to treat illegal migrants as refugees with the Centre
providing financial and essential commodities, like that of
Tripura. The illegal migrants are a drain on the funds of
both the state and council respectively, but the committee
has made no recommendation in this regard to the
Parliament.
Before the Flood - When the Chakma People were
Happy writes Adam Curle
From 1956 to 1959, Adam Curle was an advisor to the
Pakistan Planning Commission. My responsibilities spread
to East Pakistan, which is now Bangladesh and included the
remote area beyond the Bay of Bengal, which was the
homeland of the Chakmas, the largest of several tribal
groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. One of my main
responsibilities was to look into particular problems, such as
tribal conflict, famines, epidemics and so on.
Early in 1957 there were rumours in Karachi (then the
federal capital of Pakistan where the Planning Commission
Sprinking of Chakmas 63
was located) that a dam was to be built in the CHT which
might flood out a few hundred tribal people living in the
steep valleys behind the dam. But nobody knew much more.
A couple of colleagues and I decided to go and assess the
situation. We flew to Dacca (now Dhaka), on to Chittagong,
then up to Rangamati the chief town of the CHT by jeep,
and after that further travel was also by elephant, country
boat, or foot through beautiful wooded hills and steep
valleys.
The local people knew something alarming was in the
air, but were not sure what. They told us, they said, they
had seen men painting lines on trees, but didn’t know what
they signified. I was captivated by the Chakmas. Rangamati
and the area up stream from town were predominantly
populated by these delightful Buddhist people. They were
artistic, cheerful, hospitable. They lived in houses perched
on top of stilts which, if overcrowded, tended to sway.
Wherever we went we were offered hospitality. On one
occasion, when a large group had come to visit and drink
rice wine, the sway was too much for the stilts and the whole
structure sank gently to the ground. We felt, in a silly
western way, guilty for this, but the Chakmas laughed and
said it was an old house and was bound to collapse soon
anyway.
Children played in the bright waters of innumerable
streams. Old men pottered round with hoes. The valleys
were fertile and it seemed no one was undernourished or
hungry. Beautiful girls wove the clothes with which they
sometimes covered their breasts. For several days we
traveled with the uncle of the young head of the Chakma
nation, the Chakma Rai. The situation gradually became
clearer. Yes, the dam was going to be built, indeed was
already being built, as we saw with our own eyes on the
journey back — a great gash through the forest, hundreds
of men shifting buckets of soil, a hostel for the foreign
engineers where, feeling like traitors, we were given eggs
and sausages for breakfast. |
L
i
64 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
The dam would be completed. No doubt of that, powerful
American firms had already spent millions on it. The backed
up waters would flood the fruitful valleys. What then? The
people would be displaced — driven up into the inhospitable
hills or to the alien and non-Buddhist coastal areas. This
gentle and creative civilization would disappear. In the last
phase of our journey, the unhappy face of the future became
increasingly clear to us and our Chakma friends. It was
miserably sad. And justifiably, for the nightmares soon
became the reality. Ironically, too, for in most respects the
dam was a failure, particularly as a generator of energy,
I returned to Karachi and did what I could, but the dam
construction could not be reversed. We persuaded the
government to set up an organisation to mitigate the
hardships that the Chakmas would inevitably suffer. There
were schemes to develop agriculture round the shores of the
lake, to populate it with fishes, and to build up fishing
industry. Experts on terracing were brought in from
Indonesia to show how the hitherto wild hillsides could be
cultivated to replace (partially) the valleys. There were plans
to educate young Chakmas in skills appropriate to their
changed circumstances. But none of these measures had any
chance of fulfilment. History saw to that.
In 1971 the Bengali people of East Pakistan protested
against the tyranny of the drunken Pakistani President,
Yahya Khan. He at once unleashed a vicious campaign of
almost genocidal repression. India then intervened and the
Pakistan army, a thousand miles from its base, could only
surrender. ‘aus Bangladesh was born.
But history is replete with examples of how people, freed
from oppression themselves, proceed to subjugate and
repress minority groups within their own borders. The new
order of Bangladesh had no sympathy with the harmless
Buddhist people of the CHT. It cast envious eyes on the
territory of this negligible minority and encouraged the
Sprinking of Chakmas 65
increasingly violent incursion of settlers, most of whom
would stick at nothing to establish themselves in this
delightful country and have only contempt for its age-long
inhabitants.
A few of these remain, but as a whole the Chakmas are
a sadly damaged and scattered people.
Chakma Descent
According to the traditional source in history, Chakmas
lived on the river valley Brahmaputra in the olden days
around 6th - 7th AD. At that time they were termed “Tsak-
ma’ and after having gone to the Karnaphuli range they
became known by the term ‘Chakma’. With the turn up in
history the number of Sub-tribe or sect (Gozas) in them were
as under :
Name of Tribe Name of Sect Personal Name Remarks
T-sak-ma Phwa-ho A-on-chi-a
OR ' Tai-yo Dzu-ro-dhan Dhurjodhan
Chak-ma Ang-ngu
Bor-ua-Kwzu Ison-na-dhan Sona-dhan
Bung-ngu- O-ri-nat
Zotia Me-go-nat Meghanat
Bung-ngu-solichia Kho-leng-nga
Bar-se-ke Go-zal-ya
Undo-talao
Ang-ngu Sur-ja-dhan Surja-dhan
Extract: The Tribes of Brahmaputra Valley (1901:18) by L.A Waddel
Publication: Sanskaran Prakashan, New Delhi.
The original personal name’s tone was in the form of
Burmese or Arkanese and later in Sanskrit. It is to be noted
that the only final consonant sound that Burmese possess
are particularly four (k, t, n and ng), that the two first are
almost undistinguishable that all four exist only in
combination with certain vowel sounds, and, except in
Arakanese, there is no ‘r’ sound at all and that the alphabet
lacks both ‘f’ and ‘v’. It is obvious that the scope of variety
a
66 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
in the rendering of words like Pariah, Rangrez, Bhumiji and
VYannan (to take a few of many instances) is enormous. There
‘ has been a big propagation in the number of septs in them
(four times), as recorded by Sir H.H. Risley in his report “The
‘Tribes and Castes of Bengal’ (1891). They must have reached
Brahmaputra river valley from top of the Himalayan
Mountain Ranges or from below the valleys. It makes one
think - are they Indian- Sakyan (Scythian), like Koch, who
were most dominant group of people before the British era
in this region? The British rulers bisected the Koch
Kingdom, one part in Bengal and the other part in Assam.
They are the last remnants of Tibetan traditions. The main
question is: where did they come from? The universal
acceptance is that they belong to Mongoloid-race of Tibets- .
Burman group originating from Centra Asia. Historically,
Tsak, Sak and Thet originated from South China. They
spread over Myanmar, Arakan and adjoining areas in India
and Bangladesh. Ethnographically they have affinities with
Laos, Cambodians and Thais. They might be known by
different names in different areas (countries), but-have the
same origin, like Singpho (India), Jimpho (China), Karen
(Myanmar) originating from Hukong valley in Chifia. The
theory that the Tibetan and Myanmaries have a common
origin has obtained universal acceptance.
From historical information we know that the Tibeto-
Burman race moved eastwards in a comparatively recent era
towards the head waters of the Irrawadi and Chindwin (both
in Myanmar), and then divided up into separate branches,
some of which maintained their westerly course, to find
an ultimate resting place in Tibet and portions of Assam,
while the others either worked southwards into what is
now Myanmar or remained to people the country in the
neighbourhood. They are now divided more than 100 sub-
groups. The Myanmar (Burmese) claim descent from
Gautama and the Sakya race; the derivation of the word
Burma. The Sakyan King Abhi Raja and Binnaka Raja and
Sprinking of Chakmas 67
their sons established Kingdoms in Kubo Valley, Burma and
Arakan near the Karnaphulli range. Therefore, Chakmas
of CHT bears a great similarity with Sakyan race —in a way
it might prove of their having descended from Gautama and
the Sakyan race. Their legendary remembrance of Agar
Tara, Alim Tara etc and Gogen Supreme truth Lama
corresponds to Tibetan faith. Tara or Arya Tara is a female
Buddha" typically associated with Buddhist tantra practices
as preserved in Tibetan Buddhism. At one time, Chakmas
religious belief was in Tara, one of various expression of
building society but it has dried out and the direction of their
religious belief has changed to other set of Buddhism which
has now become their driving force. The control mechanism
view of culture begins with the assumptions that human
thoughts are basically both social and public — the daily life.
The common language one speaks, the way one’s habit,
religious faith and degree of thinking in human life. For
orientation of community social life is subject to geographical
surroundings, such is the case with Chakmas their forest
living (jhuming) in the mountain/river valleys their concrete
pattern mode of life. Many have gradually moved out from
clustered surroundings, adopting rural urban livelihood.
Tibetan Goddess Tara
Tara means Tibetan Goddess, or the generic name for a
set of Buddhas or Bodhisattva of similar aspect and often
considered metaphoric for Buddhist virtues. The most widely
known form of Taras are:
1. Green Tara, known as the Buddha of enlightened
- . wactivity.
2. White Tara, also known for compassion, long life,
healing and serenity; also known as the wishfuling
wheel, or cintachakra.
3. Red Tara, of fierce aspect associated with
magnetizing all good things. _
4. Black Tara, associated with power.
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
. Yellow Tara, associated with wealth and prosperity.
. Blue Tara, associated with transmutation of anger.
. Cittamani Tara, a form of Tara widely practiced at
the level of Highest Yoga Tantra in the Gelung school
of Tibetan Buddhism, portrayed as green and often
confused with Green Tara.
Khadiravani Tara (Tara of the teak forest), who
appeared to Nagarjuna in the Khadiravani forest of
South India and who is sometimes referred to as the
“92nd Tara”. There are 5 (five) Tibetan groups :
1. Sera, 2. Nima, 3. Sakya, 4. Kajni, 5. Pembo.
Tibet has been the source of Taras (female saviour of
Mahayana traditions). One of the deities adored by Ahoms
in Assam is called “Phura Tara” and in its Burmese form
Bura or Bhura meaning the Buddha (or rather Bodhisattva)
and his female counterpart “Tara’. Chakmas recount their
Taras,
1.
Se tp
HAnmp © HH SS
OO NH oP wp
as follows :
Malem Tara
Sadenggiri Tara
Annicha Tara
See Moga Tara
Doso Parami Tara
Trikunda Tara
Bora Kuruk and Choto Kuruk Tara
-Talik Shastra Tara
Aritama Tara
. Raken Ful Tara
. Sahas Ful Tara
. Arinamma Tara
. Jyon Dharma Tara
. Anjina Tara
. Pudam Ful Tara
Sprinking of Chakmas 69
17.
18.
19.
20,
21.
22.
23.
24,
20.
26,
21.
28.
29.
Fudam Ful Tara
Sava Diba Tara :
Cherak Ful Tara
Chaneng Ful Tara
Buddha Ful Tara
sak Suttan Tara
Raja Hara Tara
Sarak Dan Tara
Suba Dijiya Tara
Sakya Tara
Fakiri Tara
Angara Tara
Arya Tara (immortal Bodhisattva a personification
of Nirvana who is identified with Shakti or the
female principle. Tara is the female Buddha typically
associated with Buddhist Tantra practice as
preserved in Tibetan Buddhism. The ancient wisdom
of Chakmas might proclaim a lineage to tibetan
religious belief in Tara whose spectra of authority
was in Vikramsila university. The codes of Chakma
Taras are not found in original form albeit in
Chakma and Bangali scripts, the grandeur part of
Chakma Mahayana had been lost in the racy
human history and the wheel of future of them had
turned bacakward. Chakmas were believer of
‘Shamanism’ : a kind of premitive biligious belief in
which Gods, spirits and demons influencing all
human life and Buddhist Monks protect the human
into their abode by chanting sutras. They seck to
occure merit and avert misfortune by paying homage
to Buddhist monks. The term Tara is the generic
name of the sect of Bodhisattvas which is very
common to Chakma Buddhism.
70 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
The corridor of Chittagong Hill Tracts was the frontier
guarding wall to protect Buddhism from the outside
ageression - at that time it was Mughals and Hindus
casteism, working against Sakyans. The Parsian historian
gave the term Hindustan to the dwellers from the Indus
Valley in Central India to the western bank of the Ganges,
implying many caste men were those beyond this. The
casteism (caste system) had never been able to gain foothold
the time when the Tsakyans were in Brahmaputra valley;
there was no caste system in this region. (There are records
of their living conditions at that time), and highlighting the
link of this region with South West Asia. After their
migration in the Karnaphuli valley at the backyard of
Chittagong province their subsistence was Jhuming (shifting
cultivation) or Choomeas. It is mentioned by John Macrae,
Esq, in his report on ‘Account of the Kookies’ (1808)
published in Asiatic Researches Vol. 7, that they possessed
some sort of inscription which he could not decipher. As he
says, one of them however, is partly legible and it appears
to be in the Hindustani language. It contains the name of
Sultan Ibrahim and wishes to him for a long life. He further
writes that the “Choomeas” are the inhabitants of the first
range of hill bordering on the plains to the north and the
east tributary. Their villages are called Chooma. Some
British writers mentioned the Chuk-ma whose legendary
remembrances are connected with Champa — a flourishing
city in ancient India in 6th B.C. It still exists near Bhagalpur
(in Bihar) by the name Champa Nagar. It can be seen as a
link of Chakmas with Laotians of South-East Asia, formerly
a part of French Indo-China in their physical feature,
ancient customs and norms and written scripts. The Laotians
allied to Saks (Thets of Barma) in the Irrawady Valley and
some of those are supposed to have travelled in the South-
westerly direction into Arakan and crossed mountainous
tracts of the country. There is a place called Champasak in
Laos. Chakmas are all fair-skinned. Chakmas have some
esoteric social habits which are incomprehensible by others
_ Sprinking of Chakmas 71
like the lulling sound of child to sleep. It is called “Oli- Oli”
(the sound to send to sleep). They have esoteric foundling
with children tending the nose, while in western countries
kissing on cheeks or hands. They have some esoteric food
habits which are in decadence line eating raw egg, some
items that are fading away. Jhdiginous plants in their
cultivable lands like “Saw tree” (soft fibre tree) for vegetable
items.
The Shrine on the Hill they simply belong to
by Raja Tridir Roy, former Chakma Chief
Alikadam, in the south of Hill Tracts, was one of the
ancient capitals of the Chakma Kings. There are still vestiges
of ruined palaces, temples and ponds. An occasional coin of
those bygone days still forms a part of a young girl’s
necklace. A hill is even today known as Pagla Mura, after
the “Pagla Raja” Shatua. Near the confluence of the
Matamuri and the Toin there once stood a shrine on the hill
— surrounded by a cluster of champa trees. It is said that
on certain nights a blue luminescence could be discerned
around the shrine which, however, vanished at human
approach; but not the lingering fragrance of incense and
sandalwood...
The King’s favourite horse was a chestnut bay that was
not born in the royal stables but under a champa tree. One
day as Shatua, in his pre-dawn ride, cantered past the forest
of champas he heard the pitiful neighing of a horse in pain.
The King, ever sensitive to the sufferings of others, turned
back, dismounted and raced up the knoll. And there he
discovered the new born foal which he named Champa...
Champa is dead. The King has not the heart to ride
another horse. It is not yet dawn. He saunters out of the
palace gates and ambles about dispiritedly. An unseen force
72 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
seems to draw him toward the cluster on the hill where years
ago Champa first stood on shaky, new found, legs.
In the faint morning light he perceives, under the self-
same tree, a monk in yellow robes meditating in the lotus
posture. He appears to be in a trance, his body rigid, his
eyes fixed, unblinking. Shatua, sensing that intrusion would
be unwelcome, retires behind a tree and observes the
mendicant in enthralled silence.
Presently, a blue green glow seems to emanate from the
monk and still in the same posture, he is elevated gently
as though by some invisible hand. The sitting figure floats
about, then remains immobile, suspended in mid air, his
unseeing eyes still riveted on the tip of his nose.
The monk gradually floats down to earth. The glow
grows faint, then vanishes. The rigidity is gone and he seems
to breathe. His eye-lids stir and he blinks. He is normal
again, a man sitting under a tree, relaxed, serene.
Shatua had heard of Yogis and Tantrics but had ever
been sceptical of their prowess in the occult, dismissing most
of the accounts as exaggerated hearsay. Now he is astounded
at seeing a man actually levitate before his very eyes. He
goes forward and bows.
“Holy One, 1 am amazed at what I have witnessed. Are
you an Arahat?”
“No, son, still a seeker.”
“Do you follow the esoteric doctrine handed down
through Kasyapa the Elder?” |
“The Guru did not specify. He said the Tathagata showed
the way.”
“Holy one, if I become your chela will you teach me
levitation and the power to read minds and look into past
lives?”
Sprinking of Chakmas 73
The monk smiles. “An Ekachari does not accept chelas;
son. He sojourns alone. He can merely give guidance to one
who seeks. He has achieved Jatiswar knowledge and a little
of levitation but cannot read minds — not all minds.”
“Tell me, then, what must I do?”
“You must vow not to speak of the powers you may gain
except only to him whom you may teach. And you may teach
only to those with the capacity to learn.”
“But how will J determine that?”
“You will be told. You must also vow never to use your
powers for evil.”
“I vow.”
“To observe these conditions until death?”
“Yes, Holy One.”
“Remember that mind controls matter and will controls
mind. Learn to view all phenomena through knowledge, not
through the senses. Consider the faculty of sight. Every
impression — every image that the eye conveys to the brain
is the inferior image — the image of limited truth. The mind
must superimpose the true image, in all its perspective, in
its entirety. Now, a word about breathing”...
The King has had a shrine built on the knoll of champas.
Unfailingly, every Tuesday and Saturday he retires there
and remains alone from midnight to sunrise. No one, on pain
of death, is permitted within a radius of two hundred cubits
of the shrine. There are whispers that the King undertakes
strange activities there. Some say he hangs head down
like a bat, changes form, that he practices suspended
animation.
One evening, at the palace, when the King has retired
to his bed chamber, he hears a knock.
74 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
“Who is it?”
“My Lord, it is I.”
Shatua opens the door to let in Amangali, his Chief
Queen. Her mind has been poisoned by certain courtiers,
whose insidious promptings insists that the King has
entered into evil ways, and that only she can set things
aright before it is too late. These Cassandras had predicted
depletion of the royal coffers long ago, yet, despite the King’s
charitable exuberance the royal treasury is fuller than ever
and the people more prosperous.
“My Lord, why do you prevaricate? Is it evil — what you
do in the shrine?” |
“No, Amangali, there is no evil involved. I have told you
so before. Why do you persist in this matter?”
“People speak of strange going-on. And there is a great
change in you. You do not delight in our company any longer.
Is it a fancy for some new woman?”
Shatua laughs, “Women do not delight me any more,
_ Amangali; nor I them, I dare say. I cannot feel any passion
for them, for I see beyond the externals — I perceive the
defilements they are composed of.”
“Are we then repulsive to you — even the beautiful
Damayanti, whose society you could not have enough of
before this change in you?”
“No, they do not repulse me — it is that they do not
attract me either.”
“Damayanti is pining for you, though pride makes her
hide her heart.”
“And what makes you hide yours, Amangali?”
“I ? But...my head...I feel weak.” She faints, Shatua
sighs, “Poor misguided woman. Yet what is fated has to be.”
Sprinking of Chakmas 75
He restores her, then goes to the chamber of Damayanti,
his youngest wife. At his approach she rushes forward to
greet him and then abruptly draws back recoiling at her own
rebounding passion that could not penetrate the King’s aura.
She blinks back her tears, uncomprehending, hurt.
“Forgive me, Little One, I should have warned you.
Believe me, I would speak, were it possible.”
Damayanti looks at him through her tears. The Kings
sits on a low stool by the window across the room.
“Do you still love me, Little One?”
Damayanti nods, “Yes, more than ever. But my Lord’s
love has dried up-like a marsh in summer heat.”
The scent of jasmines wafts in through the open window.
Through a pause in the northern flight of clouds the full
moon is visible again in its splenderous isolation. The King
turns from the window and looks at her. There is a wistful
smile in his eyes.
“It has not dried up, Little One, only changed form.”
The plaintive note of a distant flute lends the night an
added poignancy.
“Now, listen. My end is drawing near—a violent end.”
“No, never. I shall not let it happen. Who dares hurt my
noble King?”
“There is greed and hatred and delusion around us. The
die has been cast. And my former Karma impels me toward
such an end.” He looks at the Matamuri flowing on in its
silent, incessant, continuity.
“I shall take form only once more, if you help.”
ol Gat
“Yes, Little One. I cannot rely on any one else. May I
ask this favour of You? A difficult one, though.”
76 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
She looks at her Lord and is stricken at the expression
of infinite sadness and hope. “Anything, my heart,
anything.”
He sighs and turns to gaze at the moon-bathed
Matamuri and ponders its illusion of permanency, of
immutability. Yet it is in a state of perpetual flux, not a drop
remaining in one spot for even a moment on its journey to
the sea. But then what is a river without its banks or a
Being without its Name and Form? Perhaps its essential no-
self, no longer a part of the Whole, but the Whole itself.
“After I am killed, before the rise of the seventh day sun
you must cremate me, you with one trusted maid alone.
Could you, would you, Little One? Then collect the ashes
and release them where the Toin joins the Matamuri.”
The Queen is speechless.
“It is either yes or no. I give you my word that what you
do is to prevent the recurrence of evil, the evil in me, the
last vestige of it.”
The young Queen bites her lips to smother the swelling
tears. “Yes, my lord, I shall do as you bid.”
“Do you give your solemn word—no matter what I—or
any one else says or does—that you shall-do exactly as I
have said?”
“T do.”
“May all accumulated merits of my myriad existences
surround you in blessing. Now, the time is nigh, I must go
away. Grieve not, Little One, all things pass away.
Remember evil can never be cured by evil but by love alone.
This is an eternal verity.”
It is past midnight. Amangali creeps out of the palace
gates and stealthily proceeds toward the shrine. She peers
through the peephole she had had gouged out in the wall
earlier. All is darkness within save for winking green-blue
glow-worms—or so they appear to her. She watches
Sprinking of Chakmas 77
spellbound. The King, in rapt concentration, is washing his
heart and entrails. Amangali shrieks at the sight—again and
again.
Shatua hastily completes his ritual ablutions and rushes
out. But by then she has made good her escape. Some feel
that the rude disturbance in the midst of such a psychically
delicate operation deterred him from re-inserting his vital
organs properly. Others are of the view that he was then in
some sort of suspended animation and his real psyche could
not re-enter his body. The surmises are many. It is given out
that the King’s mental equilibrium is affected. And
thenceforth he is known as the Mad King—the Pagla Raja.
People are immensely saddened at this tragic
development and begin to murmur at the apathy in the
palace, for no physicians or witch doctors are permitted to
see the King. Some say that he is seized with deep
melancholia and is confined to a room where he paces
ceaselessly and mutters to himself. Some whisper that there
is a conspiracy to murder the King and that in fact he is
perfectly sane. One day this is what happens :
Knowing the King’s pet avertion to elephants, someone
raises an alarm that an elephant has gone berserk. Shatua
thrusts out his head through the window to see for himself.
Amangali’s father severs it with a single blow of the axe.
The head, however, does not fall on the ground.
Unaccountably it vanishes. The conspirators quietly secret
the body out of the palace and bury it near the shrine. They
dare not announce the King’s death for people would demand
to see his body; and a headless one would not be acceptable,
if for no other reason, as clear evidence of foulplay. As the
King is childless Amangali takes the reign of Government
in her hands. People hear garbled accounts of the
assassination and clamour for justice, and for a proper
78 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
- cremation. Amangali acquires the appellation, “Daughter of
the Regicide.”
But the head cannot be found and this cannot be
divulged. While public clamour mounts, Damayanti dreams.
In her dream the King implores her to open his grave on
the seventh day but not to cremtate him, so that he may
come back to life by his magic powers and avenge himself.
The dream recurs again and again.
Before the dawn of the seventh day Damayanti,
accompanied by a maid, visits the grave which her trusted
scouts had located earlier. They find the necessary
implements, as instructed, and begin to dig. Damayanti finds
the King whole, the severed head miraculously conjoined
with the body, and the body warm with reviving life.
There is a tremendous struggle within her, a temptation
to slink away and do nothing—and let the King come back
to life and punish the perpetrators of this fulsome perfidy.
But again and again the King’s voice and the infinite sadness
and hope in his eyes come back to mind—and her pledge—
and his words :
“Evil can never be cured by evil but by love alone. This
is an eternal verity.”
She grits her teeth and with every fibre crying out
against it, she yet carries out her King’s last behest, and
with her own hand ignites the incense strewn pyre of
sandalwood. .
The blushing eastern sky shyly awaits the appearance
of her lord, the sun. Damayanti places the ashes in an ivory
casket and wearily wends her way down to the confluence
of the rivers. Tears coursing down her face, her heart
breaking with anguish, she gently lowers the King’s last
remains into the river., Ever slowly,/the casket sinks. The
ripples widen in concentric circles, then vanish.
Sprinking of Chakmas 79
Agreement between the National Committee on CHT
affairs formed by the government of the People’s Republic
of Bangladesh and the Parbattya Chattagram
Jana Samhati Samiti
Under the framework of the constitution of Bangladesh
and having fullest and firm confidence in the sovereignty
and integrity of Bangladesh the National Committee on
CHT Affairs, on behalf of the government of the People’s
Republic of Bangladesh and the Parbattya Chattagram
Jana Samhati Samiti, on behalf of the inhabitants of the
Chittagong Hill Tracts, with an objective of elevate political,
social, cultural, educational and financial rights and to
expedite socio-economic development process of all citizens
in CHT, arrived at an agreement described in four parts as
below:
(A) General
1. Both sides, considering CHT as Tribal Populated
Region, recognized the necessity for protection of the
character of this region and for overall development of it.
\ 2. Both sides, in accordance with the decisions and
responsibilities stated in these paragraphs under this
agreement, determined to make, change, amend and add
concerned rules and procedures as per laws/rules.
3. With an aim to observe the implementation process
of this agreement an Implementation Committee shall be
formed with the persons stated below :
(a) A member to be nominated by the Prime Minister
. Convenor
(6) Chairman of the Task Force formed under this
agreement —————————_ Member
(c) President of the Parbattya Chattagram
Jana Samhati Samiti —-————————- Member
80 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
4. This agreement shall be in force from the date of
signing the agreement. This agreement shall remain
in force until all steps and measures According to this
agreement are completed by both sides.
(3) HILL DISTRICT LOCAL GOVT. COUNCIL/
HILL DISTRICT COUNCILS
Both sides agreed to change, amend, add and repeal the
Hill District Local Government Council Acts, 1989.
(Rangamati Hill District Local Government-Council Act,
1989, Bandarban Hill District Local Government Council
Act, 1989 and Khagrachari Hill District Local Government
Council Act, 1989) and its various sections described as
below : |
1. The term ‘Upajati’ shall be in force.
2. The name of the Hill District Local Government
Council shall be Hill District Council.
3. Who is not a tribal and possesses land legally in the
Hill District and generally lives at a certain address
in the Hill District he shall be meant ‘non-tribal
permanent resident’.
4. (a) There shall be 3 (three) seats for women in every
Hill District Council. There shall be one-third of
the said seat for non-tribal women. :
(6) Sub-section (1), (2), (3) and (4) of section 4 of the
original rule shall exist.
(c) The words “Deputy Commissioner” and “of the
Deputy Commissioner” placed in the second line
of sub-section (5) of the section 4 shall be replaced
with the words “Circle Chief’ and of the Circle
Chief respectively.
(d2) Following sub-section shall be added in the
section 4:
Whether a person is a non-tribal shall be determined,
along with the identity of non-tribal to which he
belongs, by the concerned Circle Chief on the
Sprinking of Chakmas 81
8.
provision of submission of certificate from concerned
Headman/Pourasabha Chairman/Union Parishad
Chairman and no person can be a candidate for the
office of the non-tribal member without a certificate
from the concerned Circle Chief in this behalf.
. It is narrated in the section 7 that a person elected
chairman and member shall make an oath or
announce confirmation before Divisional
Commissioner of Chittagong. By amendment of it
there shall be added the portion that the members
shall make oath or announce confirmation before
“Justice of High Court Division” in lieu of “Divisional
Commissioner of Chittagong”.
.In leu of the words “Divisional Commissioner of
Chittagong” shall be placed the words “as per
election procedure” in the fourth line of section 8.
. The words “three years” placed in the second line of
section 10 shall be replaced with the words “five
years’.
There shall be a provision in the section 14 that—
If the office of the Chairman falls vacant and in absence
of the Chairman a tribal member elected by other members
of the Council shall preside and perform other
responsibilities.
The existing section 17 shall be replaced with the
sentences mentioned as below:
A person shall, under the Act, be elligible to be enrolled
in the electoral roll, if
(1) he is a citizen of Bangladesh;
(2) his age is not less than 18 years;
(3) he is not declared mentally unsound by any
competent court;
(4) he is a permanent resident of Hill District.
82 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
The words “determination of electoral constituency” shall
be added in the sub-section (2) of section 20.
1. There shall be a provision in the sub-section (2) of
section 25 :
The chairman and in absence of him a tribal member
elected by other members shall preside over all the
meeting of the Council.
2. As all the area of Khagrachari District is not included
in the Mong Circle, so the words “Mong Circle Chief
and Chakma Circle Chief” shall be placed in lieu of
the words “Mong Chief of Khagrachari” in the section
26 of the Khagrachari Hill District Council Act.
Similarly facility of attending the meetings of the
Rangamati Hill District Council by Bohmong Circle
Chief also shall be maintained. In the sameway,
there shall be a provision of attending the meetings
of the Bandarban Hill District Council by Bohmong
Circle Chief.
3. There shall be provision in the sub-sections (1) and
(2) of section 31 that—
There shall be a Chief Executive Officer as secretary
in the Council. Tribal Officers shall be given priority
in this post.
4. (a) There shall be a provision in the sub-section (1)
of section 32 that—
For the proper conduct of its affairs the Council
may with the approval of the government, create
posts of various categaries of officers and
employees.
(6) The sub-section (2) of section 32 shall, by
amendment, be made as follows :
The Council may, in accordance with regulations,
appoint, transfer, suspend, dismiss, remove class
three and class four employees and inflict any other
punishment on them.
Sprinking of Chakmas 83
Provided that, priority to the tribals is maintained
in the matter of the said appointment.
(c) There shall be provision in the sub-section (3) of
section 32 that —
The government in consultation with the Council may,
as per regulation, appoint, transfer, suspend, dismiss,
remove or inflict any other punishment on other officers of
the Council.
15.In the sub-section (3) of section 33 shall be
mentioned “as per regulation”.
16. The words “or any other way determined by the
government” placed in the third line of sub-section (1) of
section 36 shall be omitted.
17. The original rule shall be in force in the fourth of
sub-section (1) of section 37.
18. Sub-section (3) of section 38 shall be repealed and
by amendment the sub-section (4) shall be framed as
follows :
At any time before the expiry of the financial year, if
deemed necessary, budget may be framed and sanctioned.
19. In the section 42 the following sub-section shall be
added—
The Council with the fund received from the government
shall formulate, initiate and implement development projects
on the subjects transferred and all the development works
initiated at the national level shall be implemented by the
concerned mimistry/department through the Council.
20. The word “government” placed in the second line of
sub-section (2) of section 45 shall be replaced with the word
“Council”.
21. By amendment of rules of sections 50, 51 and 52 the
following section shall be made—
“The government, if deemed necessary, may advice or
order the Council, in order to ensure conformity with
84 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
the purpose of the Act. If the govt. is satisfied that
anything done or intended to be done by the Council
or on behalf of the Council is not conformity with law
or contrary to public interest the government may seek
information and clarification and give advice or
instruction to the Council on concerned matters in
22. The words “if the period of supersession is completed”
shall be repealed and in lieu of them shall be added “within
ninety days of supersession” before the words “this Act”.
23. The words “of the government” in the third and fourth
lines’ of section 6] shall be replaced with the words “of the
(a) By amendment of sub-section (1) of section 62— this
section shall be made as follows :
“Notwithstanding anything contained in any Act for
the time-being in force, all members of the rank of
Sub-Inspector and below of Hill District Police shall
be appointed by the Council in manner laid down
by regulations and the Council may transfer and
take disciplinary action against them as per
procedure laid down by regulation:
Provided that in the matter of such appointment
tribals shail be given priority”.
(b) By repealmant of the words “on the provision of all
other laws for the time-being in force” placed in the
second line of sub-section (3) of section 62 shall be
placed the words “as per rule and regulation”.
25. The words “giving assistance” placed in the third line
of the section 63 shall be in force.
26. By amendment of the section 64 the following sub-
sections shall be made—
(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in any law for
the time-being in force, no land within the
boundaries of Hill District shall be given in
Sprinking of Chakmas 85
settlement, purchased, sold and transferred including
giving lease without prior approval of the Council :
Provided that this provision shall not be applicable in
case of areas within the reserved forests, Kaptai Hydro-
electricity Project, Betbunia Earth Satellite Station, State-
owned industries and factories and lands recorded in the
name of government.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in any law for
the time-being in force, no lands, hills and forests within
the boundaries of the Hill District shall be acquired and
transferred by the government without consultation anc
consent of the Hill District Council. |
(3) The Council may supervise and control functions o.
Headman, Chairman, Amin, Surveyor, Kanungo and
Assistant Commissioner (land).
(4) Fringe land in Kaptai Lake shall be given in
settlement on priority basis to original owners.
7. By amendment of section 65 this section shall be
framed as follows :
Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law
for the time-being in force, responsibility of collecting
land development tax shall be entrusted in the Council
and the said tax collected in the District shall be credited
to the Council Fund.
28. By amendment of section 67 it shall be made as
follows- “If deemed necessary for co-ordination of activities
between the Council and govt. authorities, government or
the Council shall put proposal on certain matter(s)”.
29. By amendment of sub-section (1) it shall be made
as follows- “The government having discussion with the
Council may, by notification in the official gazette, make
rules for carrying out the purposes of this Act and even after
having rules made the Council shall have special right to
file petition for reconsideration of the said rules”.
86 - Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
30. (a) By omission of the words “with the prior approval
of the government” placed in the first and second line of
the sub-section (1) of section 69 and to add the following
portion after the words “may’—
“provided that if the government differs with any part
of the regulation made by the Hill District Council then
the government shall give advice or instruction for
amendment of the said regulation”
(6) The words mentioned in the (h) of sub-section (2) of
section 69 “transfer of power of Chairman to any officer”
shall be omitted.
31. Section 70 shall be omitted.
32. By amendment of section 79 it shall be made as
follows- “If any law by the Jatiyo Sangsad or any other
authority, applicable to Hill District, is found to be hurtful
to the District or objectionable to the tribal people in the
opinion of the Council, it may file a petition in writing to
the government stating the reasons of its being hurtful or
objectionable for the purpose of amending or relaxing its
application and the govt. shall, in the light of the petition,
adopt necessary measures”.
33. (a) The word “supervision” shall be added after the
word “order” in the No. 1 of the function of the Council of
the first schedule.
(b) The following subjects shall be added in the No. 3
of the function of the Council—
(1) Vocational training;
(2) Primary education in mother tongue;
(3) Secondary education.
(c) The words “or protected” placed in sub-section 6(b)
of the function of the Council in the first schedule shall be
omitted.
34. The following subjects shall be added in the
functions and responsibilities of the Hill District Council :
Sprinking of Chakmas 87
(a) Land and land management
(6) Police (local)
(c) Tribal law and social justice
(d) Youth welfare
(e) Environment preservation and development
(f) Local tourism
(g) Improvement trust and other local govt organisations
except Pourasabha and Union Councils
(h) Licencing for local trade and business
(i) Proper utilisation of water resources of rivulets,
canals, ponds except Kaptai lake and irrigation
(7) Preservation of death and birth and others statics
(k) Money lending and trade
(1) Jhum cultivation.
35. The following sectors and sources shall be included
in the taxes, rates, tolls and fees to be imposed by the
Council as stated in the second schedule :
(a) Registration fee from non-mechanical transports
(4) Tax on sale and purchase of goods
(c) Holding tax from land and buildings
(d) Tax from sale of domestic animals
(e) Fees from cases of social justice
(f) Holding tax on government and non-government
industries
(c) Part of royalty from forest resources
(h) Suplementary tax from cinema, theatre and circus
etc.
(¢) Part of royalty from licence or lease for exploration
and extraction of mineral resources given by the
povernment
(7) Tax from business
(k) Tax from lottery
(1) Tax from fishing.
88 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
(C) CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS REGIONAL
COUNCIL
1. A Regional Council shall be formed in co-ordination
with the 3 Hill District Local Government Council provided
that various sections of the Hill District Local Government
Council Act, 1989 (Act No. 19, 20 and 21 of 1989) shall be
amended with an aim to make the 3 Hill District Local
Government Councils more powerful and effective.
9. Chairman of this Council shall be elected indirectly
by the elected members of the Hill District Councils where
status shall be equivalent to a State Minister and he must
be a Jumma.
3. The Council shall be formed with 22 (twenty two)
members including the Chairman. Two-third of the
members shall be elected from among the tribals. The
Council shall determine its procedure of functioning.
Composition of the Council shall be as follows :-
Chairman 1
Members Tribal (men) 12
Members Tribal (women) 2,
Members non-tribal (men) 6
Members non-tribal (women) 1
Among the tribal men members 5 persons shall be
elected from among the Chakma tribe, 3 persons from the
Marma tribe, 2 persons from the Tripura tribe, 1 person
from the Murung and Tanchongya tribes and 1 person from
the Lusai, Bawm, Pankho, Khumi, Chak and Khiyang
tribes. |
Among the non-tribal men members 2 persons shall be
elected from each district. Among the tribal women
members 1 woman shall be elected from the Chakma tribe
and 1 woman from other tribes.
Sprinking of Chakmas 89
4. 3 (three) seats shall be reserved for women in the .
Council. One-third shall be non-tribals.
5. The members of the Council shall be elected indirectly
by the elected members of the Hill District Councils.
Chairman of three Hill District Councils shall be ex-officio
members of the Council and they shall have voting rights.
Eligibility and non-eligibility of the members of the
Council shall be similar to that of the Hill District Council.
6. The term of the Council shall be 5 (five) years.
7. There shall be a chief executive officer in the Council
equivalent to a Joint Secretary and priority to a tribal
candidate shall be given in appointment to this post.
8. (a) If the office of the Chairman of the Council falls
vacant then a Chairman shall be elected from among the
tribal members for an interim period by the members of Hill
District Councils.
(b) If any office of a member of the Council falls vacant
on any reason then that shall be filled through by-election.
9. (a) The Council shall supervise and co-ordinate the
subjects vested under the Hill District Councils including
co-ordination of all development activities conducted under
the three Hill District Councils. Besides these, if there is
found any lack of co-ordination and inconsistency among
the three Hill District Councils in discharging their
responsibilities the decision of the Regional Council shall be
taken as final.
(6) The Council shall supervise and co-ordinate local
councils including the municipalities.
(c) Regional Council may co-ordinate and supervise in
the matters of general administration, law and order and
development of the three Hill Districts.
(2) The Council may co-ordinate the activities of the
NGOs along with conducting of management of calamities
and relief works.
90 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Ruddhusts
(e) Tribal laws and social justice shall be under the
control of the Council.
(f) The Council may issue licence for heavy industry.
10. The CHT Development Board shall discharge its
responsibilities under general and overall supervision of the
Council. In case of appointment of Chairman of the
Development Board competent tribal candidate shall be
given priority.
11. If the Regional Council finds any rule of the 1900
CHT Regulation and other related laws, rules and
ordinances contradictory to the 1989 Hill District Council
Acts then the govt. shall remove that inconsistency by law
according to recommendation of and in consultation with
the Regional Council.
12. Untill and unless Regional Council is constituted
through direct and indirect election the government may,
by constituting an interim Regional Council, entrust the
responsibilities of the Council.
13. If the govt. makes any law on CHT it shall be in
having discussion and in consultation with the Regional
Council. If there arises the necessity to amend any such law
or to make any new law which may be harmful for
development of the 3 Hill District or the welfare of the
tribals, the Council may file a petition or put
recommendation to the govt.
14. The fund of the Council shall be created from the
following sources : |
(a2) fund received from the Hill District Councils’ fund
(6) money or profits from all properties vested in and
managed by the Regional Council
(c) grant and loan from the govt. or any other authority
(d) grant from any institution or individual
(e) profit accruing from investment by the Regional
Council;
Sprinking of Chakmas 91
(f) any other moneys received by the Regional Council
(g) money received from such sources of incomes as the
govt. may direct to be placed at the disposal of the
Regional Council,
(D) REHABILITATION, GENERAL AMNESTY
1. An agreement has been signed between the govt. and
the refugee leaders on March 9, 1997 with an aim to take
back the tribal refugees from India’s Tripura State based
on the 20-Point Facilities Package. In accordance with the
said agreement repatriation of the refugees started since
March 28, 1997. This process shall continue and with this
in view, the JSS shall provide all kinds of possible co-
operation. The internal tribal evacuees of 3 districts shall,
after determination, be rehabilitated by the Task Force.
2. After signing agreement between the govt. and the
JSS and implementation of it as well as after rehabilitation
of the tribal refugees and internal tribal evacuees the govt.
shall start survey of land in CHT as soon as possible and
after proper inquires ownership of land shall be recorded
and ensured.
3. The govt. shall ensure providing two acres of lands
to each landless family and the family who possesses less
than 2 acres of lands, provided lands were available in the
local areas. If requisite lands are not available then grove
land shall be provided.
4, A commission (land commission) headed by a retired
justice shall be formed for settling land disputes. This
commission, in addition to settle disputes of lands of the
rehabilitated tribal refugees, shall have fullest power for
cancellation of ownership of those lands and hills which
have been so far illegally settled and occupied. No appeal
can be made against the Judgement of this commission and
decision of this commission shall be final. This (arrangement)
shall be applicable in case of fringe land also,
92 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
5. This commission shall be set up with the following
members :
(a) Retired justice;
(6) Circle Chief (concerned);
(c) Chairman of the Regional Council/representative;
(d) Divisional Commissioner/Additional Commissioner;
(e) Hill District Council Chairman (concerned).
(a) The term of the commission shall be three years.
But the term of it can be extended in consultation
with the Regional Council.
(5) Commission shall settle disputes according to the
=xisting rules, customs and usages of Chittagong
Hill Tracts.
The tribal refugees who received loan from the govt. but
could not use them properly due to conflicting situation shall
be exempted with the interests.
Allotment of lands for rubber plantation and other
purposes: All the non-tribals and non-locals who were given
in settlement of lands for rubber plantation and other
purposes but had not implemented any projects within the
past 10 years or had not utilised their lands properly,
settlement of these lands shall be cancelled.
The govt. shall allot additional fund, on priority basis,
with an aim to implement more number of projects in CHT.
New projects formulated with an aim of making necessary
superstructures for development in the area, shall be
implemented on priority basis and the govt. shall provide
fund for these purposes. The govt. shall, having
consideration about the environment in the region,
encourage to develop tourism for tourists from the country
and abroad.
Quota reservation and scholarships:- Until development
equal to other region of the country the govt. shall continue
reservation of quota system in govt. services and
Sprinking of Chakmas 98
educational institutions for the tribals. With an aim to this
purpose, the govt. shall grant more scholarships for the
tribal students in the educational institution. The govt. shall
provide necessary scholarships for research works and
receiving higher education in abroad.
The govt. and elected representative shall make efforts
to maintain seperate culture and tradition of the tribals.
The govt. in order to develop the tribal cultural activities
at the national level it shall provide necessary patronisation
and assistance.
12. The Jana Samhati Samiti shall submit to the govt.
the lists of its all members including the armed ones and.
the arms and ammunition under its possession and control
within 45 days of signing this agreement.
13. The government and the Jana Samhati Samiti
jointly shall determine the date and place for depositing
arms within the 45 days of signing this agreement. After
determination of date and place for depositing arms by the
members included in the list of the Jana Samhati Samiti
the govt. shall ensure security for return of JSS members
and their family members to normal life.
14. The govt. shall declare amnesty for the members who
shall deposit their arms and ammunition on the scheduled
date. The govt. shall withdraw the cases against whom cases
have been lodged. |
15. If anyone fails to deposit arms on the scheduled date
the govt. shall take lawful measures against him.
16. After the return of all JSS members to normal life
eeneral amnesty shall be given to them and the permanent
residents who were involved in the activities of the JSS.
(a) In order to providing rehabilitation to all returnee
JSS members a lump sum of Taka 50,000/- shall be
given to each family. |
94 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
(b) All the JSS members including the armed ones
against whom cases have been lodged, warrant of
arrest and police circular for apprehension issued and
punishment has been sentenced/inflicted in the
absence, after surrendering of arms and return to
normal life all the cases, warrants of arrest, police
circulars and punishment sentenced in the absence
against them shall be exempted as soon as possible.
If JSS members are detained in the jails they also
shall be released.
(c) Similarly after surrendering of arms and return to
normal life no cases can be lodged, warrant issued
and punishment inflicted against anyone only for the
reason that he was a JSS member.
(d) All the members of the JSS who took loans from
various banks and organisations of the govt. but
could not utilise them properly those loans including
the interests shall be exempted.
(e) The JSS members who were posted in the services
of the govt. or govt. institutions they shall be
reinstated in their own posts and services and the
JSS members and their family members shall be
given appointment in accordance with their
competence. In this case, the rule of the govt. for
relaxation of age shall be followed.
(f) The JSS members shall be provided bank loans on
easier terms and conditions to give assistance for
cottage industry, horticulture etc. self-employment
activities.
(g) The children of JSS members shall be provided
educational facilities and their certificates received
from foreign educattonal Boards and institutions
shall be taken as valid.
After Signing the agreement between the government
and the Jana Samhati Samiti and immediately after the
return of the JSS members to normal life all the temporary
Sprinking of Chakmas 95
camps of military, Ansar and Village Defence Party shall be
taken back to permanent installations except the Border
Security Force (BDR) and permanent cantonments (3 at the
3 District Hqs. and Alikadam, Ruma and Dighinala) by
phases and with this in view, time-limit shall be determined.
In case of deterioration of law and order situation, natural
calamity and such other works the army can be deployed
under the civil administration like all other parts in the
country as per necessary laws and rules. In this case,
Regional Council may, according to necessity or time, request
the proper authority for the purpose of getting assistance.
Permanent residents of CHT, on priority basis to the
tribals, shall be appointed to all posts of officers and
employees at all levels of govt, semi-govt, council offices and
autonomous bodies in CHT.
Provided that in case of non-availability of qualified
candidate among the permanent residents of CHT for a
particular post, appointment in that post may be made on
deputation from the govt for a term of certain period,
A ministry on Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs shall be
established by appointing a Minister from among the
tribals. An Advisory Council shall be formed to assist this
ministry with the persons stated below —
(1) Minister on CHT Affairs
(2) Chairman/representative, Regional Council
(3) Chairman/representative, Rangamati Hill District
Council
(4) Chairman/representative, Bandarban Hill District
Council
(5) Chairman/representative, Khagrachari Hill District
Council
(6) Member of Parliament, Rangamati
(7) Member of Parliament, Khagrachari
(8) Member of Parliament, Bandarban
96 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
(9) Chakma Raja
(10) Bohmong Raja
(11) Mong Raja
(12) Three members from non-tribal permanent residents
‘ of Hilly areas nominated by the government from
; This agreement is framed as above in Bengali language
and is done and signed in Dhaka on the date of 02
. December, 1997 as per 18 Agrahayan, 1404 Bengali year.
On behalf of the inhabitants of on behalf of the government of the
People’s Republic of Bangladesh
‘ Chittagong Hill Tracts
"spp SD/-
(Jyotirindra Bodhipriya Larma) (Abul Hasanat Abdullah)
Te President Convenor
- Parbattva Chattagram Jana National Committee on Chittagong
Hill Tracts Affairs, government of
Samhati Samiti
a Bangladesh
(Sent by the Jana Samhati Samiti on December 10, 1997)
Militarization and the Chittagong Hill Tracts
INDIGENOUS AFFAIRS, IWGIA, 2/01, PAGES 14-19
INTERNATIONAL WORK GROUP FOR
INDIGENOUS AFFAIRS CLASSENSGADE
11 E, DK-2100, COPENHAGEN,
_ An international fact-finding mission to the Chittagong
Hill Tracts in 1991 described it as an area under occupation.
Ten years later, the presence of the army in the region is
as evident as ever. A peace accord, which was agreed in
1997 between the Govern-ment of Bangladesh and the
Parbattya Chattagram Jana Samhati Samity, the
indigenous party fighting for autonomy and self-rule in the
CHT, has not resulted in the withdrawal of the army from
the Hill Tracts. The Peace Agreement stipulates that only
permanent camps are to remain, for the ostensible purposes
of security and territorial integrity - and yet, the armed
Sprinking of Chakmas 97
forces remain firmly entrenched in the region. The question
therefore remains as to why?
Background
The Chittagong Hill Tracts covers a land area of about
13,189 sq. kms. (5,089 sq. miles), and is the traditional
homeland of an estimated 600,000 indigenous people from
among 13 different ethnic groups including the Bawm,
Chakma, Khyang, Lushai, Marma and Tripura, among
others. It enjoyed independent status until 1860 when it
was annexed by the British colonialist powers in India.
When India was partitioned in 1947, the CHT was awarded
to East Pakistan, contrary of the express de-mands of the
indigenous people, who believed it more expedient to be
included within secular India. From 1947 to 1971, the CHT
was part of what was then East Pakistan and, with the
creation of Bangladesh in 1971 after a bloody civil war, the
CHT became a part of this successor State. Whereas religion
had formed the basis for the creation of a separate states
for the Muslim population of India (East and West
Pakistan), the 1971 independence war signified a shift in
policies and, with the creation of Bangladesh, Bengali
nationalism was born. The first constitution of Bangladesh,
drafted in 1972, reflects this and denies the cultural
diversity of the country. Manabendra N. Larma, the founder
of the PCJSS (popularly known as the JSS)) and a member
of Parliament (CHTNorth) refused to endorse the new
Constitution:
“This Constitution does not recognize the existence of
other national communities in Bangladesh. ...It makes
nomention about the CHT: The British had given
recognition to our separateness, the. 1962 Constitution
of Pakistan duly recognized our separate status. ...the
framers of the Constitution have forgotten my land, my
people ...We have been deprived of our rights, the country
has become independent, but we continue to have a
cursed life...” (Parliament Debates 25.10.1972:292-295).
98 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Since its creation, Bangladeshi politics have been
dominated by the army, and a number of coups and counter-
coups have taken place during the country’s brief turbulent
history as an independent nation. Two of its presidents, Zia-
ur-Rahman (1975-1981) and his successor, General Ershad
(1981-1990) rose up from the army corps and took power
in violent take-overs. With the restoration of democracy by
a mass movement in December 1990, the Bangladesh army
has reverted to its traditional role as defenders of the realm,
with one major exception - in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.
In this region, in south-eastern Bangladesh, bordering
India and Myanmar (Burma), thé*military remains very
much in power, not just as a visible presence with
surveillance posts on strategic hilltops but also in civilian
matters ranging from the CHT Development Board to the
requirement of a no objection-certificate (NOC) from the
commanding officer for entrance to higher educational
institutions. a
Militarization
The presence of the army in CHT affairs has its roots
in Bengali hegemonv predicated on the creation of
Bangladesh as a separate homeland for the Bengalis. The
existence of indigenous peoples in the territorial framework
of the Bangladeshi State, with their own identity, cultures
and traditions, is a challenge to the concept of ahomogenous -
state. The demands of the indigenous people for autonomy
and the right to their own cultural identity were translated
as being secessionist, and integration and assimilation
became the fundamental! pillars of the Government’s policy
in the CHT, with the army as its main instrument in this
process. As a result, since 1972, the army has been in control
of the CHT: “Consequently, the entire region of CHT has
undergone full scale militarisation and the military has
been given total control of the administration of the CHT:
More importantly, in the name of counter-insurgency gross
violations of human rights have been committed in the area
by the military.”
Sprinking of Chakmas 99
Although it is difficult to estimate exactly how many troops
are deployed in the CHT, a rough estimate puts the figure
somewhere between 35,000 and 114,500. Military officials
attest to the fact that one-third of the entire Bang-ladesh
army is deployed in the CHT, an area which accounts for
one-tenth of the total territory of the country. With the
indigenous people numbering approximately 600,000 this
is an excessive amount, by any standard, especially in a
country that is not at war, and at peace with its neighbours:
“The CHT has been turned into an army camp. The 24th
Infantry Division of Chittagong Division is in charge.
The overall command for the CHT is with the GOC of
the 24th Division. The army has four Brigade Head
Quarters in the CHT: Rangamati, Khagrachari and
Dighinala in the north, and Banderban in the south.
There are garrisons in Ruma and Alikadam in the
south and there are army base camps in each Upazilla
(sub-district) Head Quarters in the CHT as well as in
various villages. There are also several army camps on
the roads (The CHT Commission 1991:39). At Kaptat,
there is a naval base with three gunboats (Ahmed, A.
1993:46). There ts also an anti-guerilla training centre
at Mahalchari in the CHT (Mey 1984:147). The state
does not reveal the exact number of military personnel
deployed in the CHT. But from military sources it could
be gathered there are 19 Infantry battalions, 11
Bangladesh Rifles [BDR] battalions, three Artillery
battalions, one Engineer battalion, 18 Ansar battalions
and four battalions of armed police. The military is
spread out all over the area. It has five Regional Head
Quarters situated in Khagrachari, Rangamati, Kaptai,
Banderban and Guimara. Under these five Head
Quarters there are 26 zones, 23 are with the army and
three with BDR; BDR zones are located in Kaptat,
Bolipara and Natkhongchari. There are over 230 army
camps, more than 100 BDR camps and over 80 police
100 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
camps in the area (CHT Commission 1991:40). The total
number of men is a matter of conjecture with the figures
varying between 114,500 (CHT Commission 1991:41,
Mey 1984:147) to 30-35,000 (CHT Commission 1992:4).
However, military officials are of the opinion that
Bangladesh has deployed one third of its total army in
the CHT2, which suggests that the latter figures are
more accurate. The current total strength of the
Bangladesh armed forces is 115,500, while the BDR
(30,000), armed police (5000) and Ansars (20,000)
to-gether form 55,000 (ISS 1994:152-153).” 3
A retired army officer who served as an infantry brigade
and region commander in the CHT from 1989 to 1991
confirms that over 500 camps have been established and
maintained by the security forces in the last 25 years’.
Counter-insurgency
The initial reason for the deployment of the troops in
the CHT was “national security” and justified on the ground
that the CHT was in a geographically strategic area
bordering the Indian states of Assam, Manipur, Mizoram
and Tripura and the Rakhine and Chin states of Myanmar,
most of which have ongoing ethnic struggles. However, the
deployment of such a large proportion of the Bangladesh
army in the CHT signalled the beginning of a relationship
_ founded on hostility and antagonism; the indigenous
peoples realized that the Government viewed them as
“insurgents” and a threat to national security.
This conviction gained ground when the Government
initiated a Settlement Programme (1979-84). Impoverished
families from other parts of Bangladesh were given
incentives including land, money and food rations, to come
and live in the CHT. The settler families were allocated lands
legally belonging to the indigenous peoples, either
individually or collectively. Although approximately 54,000
acres of agricultural land had been submerged by the
Sprinking of Chakmas 101
Kaptai Hydroelectric-power plant created in 1960, the
settlers were promised 11.5 acres of land, including 2.5 acres
of paddylands (wet rice growing fields).
Since most of the CHT lands were already under
cultivation or use by the indigenous peoples, measures had
to be taken to ensure the settler families received the
promised allotments. To this end, the armed forces included
another element within their “counter-insurgency’ strategy
whereby indigenous people were forced to relocate to what
were termed Cluster Villages where they were under strict
army surveillance, with strict time schedules for free
movement and labour. This also had the end result of
freeing up their lands, which could then be used for the
settlement programme. Through this programme, some
450,000 persons were settled in the Hill Tracts’.
At approximately 600,000, with an estimated 450,000
settlers and nearly one-third of the Bangladesh army in the
CHT, the indigenous people felt outnumbered and
vulnerable.
The actions of the army did nothing to allay their
concerns, as the army and para-military forces actively
assisted the settler families in divesting the indigenous
peoples of their lands and homes, and often taking their
lives as well.
In this environment, the relationship between the
indigenous peoples and the Government, which was already
antagonistic and mistrustful, degenerated rapidly. The
indigenous peoples felt betrayed and isolated, and began
to seriously consider their alternatives in a nation-state that
did not recognize their existence, or their identity. A
movement for recognition of the rights of the indigenous
peoples to exist as a separate people with the CHT defined
as an, autonomous area gathered momentum and the
Parbattya Chattagram Jana Samhati Samity (JSS) was
formed in 1972. In response to the increased militarization
102 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
and State violence, the armed wing of the JSS, the Shanti
Bahini (Peace Corps) began operations in the mid-1970s.
The resulting civil war continued for two decades,
culminating in the Peace Accord signed on 2 December 1997.
Human Rights Violations
The human rights abuses committed by the armed forces,
often in collaboration with the settlers who had been
provided with arms by the government, has been reported
extensively including by the UN, the International Labour
Organization (which monitors the situation of the
indigenous peoples in Bangladesh by virtue of a treaty to
which Bangladesh is a signatory - Convention No. 107 on
Indigenous and Tribal Populations, 1957), as well as by
international NGOs including Amnesty International and
Anti-Slavery International.
Rape, torture and massacres of innocent indigenous
villagers by the armed forces in cooperation with the settlers
have all been well documented. In its most recent report on
the CHT, Amnesty International included a list of year by
year accounts of human rights abuses (see Bangladesh:
Human rights in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, ASA 13/001/
2000 of 2 February, 2000 for details). The following are
noteworthy:
Kaukhali-Kalampati (15/03/1980): 50 indigenous
persons were gunned down by the army when
attending a meeting called by the military to discuss the
reconstruction of a desecrated Buddhist temple;
Barkal (31/05/1984): 110 indigenous persons, including
women and children, were killed by the 305 Brigade of
26 Bengal Regiment and 17 Battalion of BDR, in
collaboration with the settlers. Many of the women were
gang raped and later shot dead:
Panchari (01/05/1986): The army, and the settlers, killed
hundreds of indigenous people (actual numbers are
Sprinking of Chakmas 103
unavailable). Their houses were burnt down and
thousands fled across the border and took refuge in
camps in Tripura, India;
Matiranga (1-7/05/1986): About 70 indigenous men were
killed by the army;
Comillatilla-Taindong (18-19/05/1986): A group of 200
Tripuras fleeing to India were intercepted by the BDR
and gunned down;
Longadu (04/05/1989): The army, Village Defence Party
(VDP, a para-military force) and settlers carried out what
has been termed “a human carnage”. More than 30
indigenous people were killed, their houses burnt and
temples destroyed;
Malya (02/02/1992): Two bombs exploded on a passenger
launch. The launch was carrying a deputation of
indigenous people who were travelling to Rangamati
and Dhaka to protest against army atrocities in the area.
Survivors swam ashore but were attacked by armed
settlers who were waiting for them; about 30 were killed
(CHT Commission 1994:17); and
Logang (10/04/1992): Another component of the
Government’s CHT strategy was the forcible settlement of
indigenous people in Cluster Villages, ostensibly for their
protection, but in practice so they could be under strict
surveillance and their movements curtailed. A settler
cowherd had attempted to rape an indigenous woman, and
when others came to her aid, he was injured. In a reprisal
attack led by the settlers with members of the BDR, VDP,
and armed police, many indigenous people were killed,
although it is difficult to estimate the exact number, which
varies from JSS estimates of 138 to the Government figure
of 12. It is reported that the village was sealed off and the
houses set alight.
There are also many incidents of rape, many of which
never come to public attention. Army personnel stationed
104 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
in the CHT were encouraged to target indigenous women.
This led to many rapes, forced conversions and forced
marriages. One well-known case is that of Kalpana Chakma,
the organizing secretary of the Hill Women’s Federation,
who was allegedly abducted from her home in June 1996
by army personnel in civilian attire. Her whereabouts is still
unknown. Reports continue of discrimination and violence
against indigenous Jumma women, often young girls, on
the part of the armed forces.
An element common to all the human rights violations
that have occurred, and continue to occur, in the CHT is
that those responsible are seldom if ever held accountable
for their actions. As Amnesty International reports on the
current envyironment:” Jt ts further marked by the failure
of the Bangladeshi Government to bring to justice those
responsible for these human rights violations. Past incidents
of gross human rights violations have rarely been
investigated. In a few cases when official commissions of
inquiry have been set up [e.g. Logang Inquiry Commission]
and responsibility for violations believed to be established,
the reports were not made public and no action was taken
against any army personnel involved.” (Amnesty
International 2000:12).
This is a significant factor in the continuing violation
of human rights abuses, which have abated somewhat
following the Accord but continue nevertheless. Section 132
of the Bangladesh Code of Criminal Procedure states that
no magistrate, police, civil or military officer or any inferior
officer, or soldier or volunteer, doing any act in obedience
to any order which he was bound to obey, shall be deemed
to have thereby committed an offence. (Amnesty
International 1993:30). This provides the legal basis for the
impunity enjoyed by the armed forces and others in the
CHT.
According to Government figures, over 8,500 civilians,
soldiers and “insurgents” (alleged Shanti Bahini) have been
Sprinking ofChakmas | 105
killed during the two decades of civil war in the CHT, of
which 2,500 were civilians. However, the indigenous people
believe the actual number of civilians killed by the armed
forces is much higher. Human rights violations continue to
be reported despite the Peace Accord and, in a recent
incident on 18 May 2001, Bengali settlers, in collaboration
with the armed forces and police ransacked three villages
in the Dighinala area, and set the houses on fire. The
Jumma villagers were physically assaulted, many of them
seriously, including women and children. What is of even
graver concern is that this incident reportedly occurred in
the presence of the commanding officer of the Dighinala
cantonment and the officer in charge of the police station,
neither of whom made any effort to halt the arson or
looting.
Civil Administration
The armed forces play a key role in the civil affairs of
the CHT, and their power and influence is pervasive. For
instance, the CHT Development Board was established in
1976 by an ordinance passed by then president General Zia:
“That the CHTDB was created to counter the insurgency
became evident when the General Commanding Officer
(GOC) of the 24th Infantry Division, Chittagong was
appointed as its ex-officio chairman in 1982 by General
Ershad ...The CHTDB has implemented projects and
programs for construction of roads, telecommunication,
electrification, and moving the hill people into the
‘model’ or ‘cluster’ villages. Although the stated goal of
the CHTDB is the welfare of the hill people, in reality,
most villages in the hills do not have telephones or
electricity. Although the roads have been beneficial for
transporting produce to markets, they have first been
very useful for fast military movement. Roads expanded
the mobility of the military to combat the Shanti Bahini
and helped the businessmen most of whom were
Bengalis.”®
106 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhisis .
It is only recently that the GOC has been relieved of his
post as chairperson of the CHT'DB; however, the armed
forces continue to play a role in development issues in the
CHT. Another area where the role of the armed forces is
evident is land administration. As mentioned earlier, they
played a key role in facilitating the settlement of the plains
(Bengali) families in the CHT, with the related land losses
for the indigenous peoples, many of who were either forced
to move into cluster villages, or to flee to India. The third
alternative was to join thousands of other dispossessed
people as internally displaced.
A related effect of the militarisation of the CHT, and one
which is often overlooked, is that the army camps,
cantonments and other installations are created on lands
belonging to the indigenous peoples. Many indigenous
people have been forced to vacate their lands for military
purposes, without any compensation whatsoever. This has
been a major factor in the current crisis of displacement and
landlessness facing the indigenous Jummas. This practice
continues, and the military has plans to acquire 30,444
acres of lands in Bandarban to set up an artillery training
centre. This will displace some 25,000 indigenous people
and, with the loss of their lands, which are the basis for
their economic and cultural survival, the indigenous peoples
will be further marginalized. There are also plans to acquire
another 184 acres to expand the brigade headquarters. This
indicates that the army has long term plans in the CHT with
no immediate plans for withdrawal, as required under the
provisions of the 1997 Peace Accord.
Conclusion
Bangladesh is one of the poorest countries in the world
with a population of nearly 129 million, of which 35.6% live
below the poverty line. It is a major recipient of foreign aid
with an external debt of US$16.5 billion (1998). The UNDP
human development indicators (HDI), which are calculated
i
Sprinking of Chakmas 107
on the basis of infant mortality rates, literacy, health,
education etc. placed Bangladesh as 143rd in 1997,147th
in 1998 and 150th in 1999, the lowest in South Asia. In
contrast, the defence expenditure has steadily increased
from 1% and now accounts for between 1.5 and 1.7% of
GDP.
The defence budget for 2000 was 7% higher than the
previous year, and Taka 32 billion has been earmarked for
defence as revenue expenditure-and an additional Taka 720
million for other defence expenditures (CHT Commission
2000:20). In stark contrast, although Bangladesh has the
highest infant mortality and the lowest life expectancy in
the world, 2% is allocated for health and social welfare. To
maintain the army in the CHT, it is estimated that the
Government has to spend approximately US$125 million
annually, with a daily expenditure amounting to Taka 1.5
crore’ daily (CHT Commission 1994:2). With a Peace Accord
in place in the CHT and peaceful relations with its
neighbours, it is questionable whether this huge outlay on
defence-related spending in a poverty stricken country like
Bangladesh can be justifiable. The presence of the military
in the CHT only serves to perpetuate the isolation and
marginalization of the indigenous people.
The Peace Accord stipulates that all temporary army
camps, Village Defence Parties (VDPs) and Ansars are to
be withdrawn from the CHT and that only the border
security force (BDR) and permanent army camps at the
three district headquarters and at Alikadam, Ruma and
Dighinala are to remain. However; three years on, there
are no signs of the 500 camps of Ansars and VDPs have so
far been dismantled (Report on the Implementation of the
CHT Agreement, JSS, September 2000). In addition, the
1973 executive order imposing military rule in the CHT
remains in force, thereby legalising the presence of the
army in the area.
108 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
President Zia, who was instrumental in initiating the
militarisation of the Hill Tracts, is reported to have had his
doubts regarding this policy: “We are doing some mistakes
there. We are being unjair to the tribes. It is a political
problem that is being dealt with by police and army action.
Yet it can be settled very easily. We have no basis for taking
over these lands and pushing these peoples into a corner.
We should at least call a meeting of these tribal leaders and
ask them their demands.” (The Guardian, London, 29 July
1980 as reported in Philip Gain 2000: 115).
For Bangladesh to progress as a nation, it has to address
the CHT issue in a much more concerted manner. Sheikh
Hasina has recognized the existence of the indigenous
peoples in the CHT, and been awarded the UNESCO peace
prize for her role in finalizing the 1997 Peace Accord. Yet,
unless the military is withdrawn from the CHT, and the
Peace Accord implemented in its entirety with the
indigenous peoples given the opportunity to decide their own
future themselves, peace in the CHT will remain an elusive
NOTES
. The Politics of Nationalism: The Case of the
Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, Amena Mohsin,
University Press Limited, Dhaka, 1997.
2. “This was stated to the author by military officers
(1993-1994) who had served in the CHT. They
further posed the question that, if the army has to
be withdrawn from CHT then where will they be
stationed?”
3. Amena Mohsin 1997:171-172.
4. Allowing Peace in CHT a Chance, by Brigadier M.
Sakhawat Hussain ndc, psc, (Retd), The
Independent, Internet Edition, 15.11.2000.
5. For a detailed analysis of the Settlement Progamme,
see Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the
—
Sprinking of Chakmas 109
CHT, Bangladesh, by Rajkumari Chandra Roy,
IWGIA Document No. 99, 2000 pp. 110-122.
6. Life and Nature at Risk, by Philip Gain, in The
Chittagong Hill Tracts: Life and Nature at Risk,
edited by Philip Gain, Society for Environment and
Human Development (SEHD), July 2000, p. 34.
7. One crore = 10.000.000
Chandra Roy is an indigenous Jumma from the
Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh. She is a lawyer by
training with an LL.M. in international law. The focus of
her work is on human rights, discrimination, indigenous
rights, gender and development. Chandra Roy has worked
for many years at the Standards Department of the
International Labour Office, most recently on a project on
indigenous peoples. She has many years experience working
in the field of international law, including at the UN. She
was also involved in establishing the Unrepresented Nations
and Peoples Organization (UNPQ) to give a voice to
indigenous peoples, minorities and nations. She has written
several publications on the legal rights of the indigenous
peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, and is now working
independently on international legal issues.
Raja Tridiv Roy was born in Rangamati on 14th of May,
1933. He was the Chief (ruler) of the indigenous Chakma
Tribe, which lived in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. He studied
in India and in 1951, he qualified to join in Lincoln’s inn,
London, but on his father’s death, it prevented could not
be materialized and become the new chief in 1953. The
Pakistan government conferred him Honorary title captain
of the pakistan Army. He had won a seat in Pakistan’s first
democratically elected parliament in 1970 election. He was
most trustful to the Prime Minister Zulfiqur Ali Bhutto, who
deputed him as the Chief deligate of Pakistan in the U.N.’s
general assembly in 1972 to discuss the application for entry
into the U.N. and the accolade won by him from Bhutto in
110 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
appreciation of his successful lobbying for stalling the
ission of Bangladesh. He had chosen to stay back in
Sitar for all the rest of his life after the emergence of
Bangaldesh in 1971.
He is known Ambassador-at-large and his contact
information : Chakma House, 277, Gomal Rood E-7,
Islamabad, Pakistan.
He was made the minister of Minorities Affairs (Being
of Buddhist himself) in Bhutto's government. He also held
the portfolio of tourism: and when Zia came into power, he
was retained as an ambassador in a state of confusion at a
length of time from the early stage of life and had to wend
his way stirring up being the Buddhist minority himself in
a principally Islamic country. He was a young romantic man
when I met him on my board ship that barthed at
Chittagong port with Pakistani consignment from Glasgow
to Chittagong before India Pakistan war in 1964. He had
many wits and converse brilliantly the won him respect from
all the crews on board. All through his life he exercised
superior knowledge and powers in bureaucracy.
WHATEVER HAPPENED TO...
Tridiv Roy, the Minority Monarch of East Pakistan
Until 1971, Tridiv Roy was the Raja (King) of the
200,000-strong Chakma tribe in the Chittagong Hill Tracts,
a 13,000-sq.-km. tribal belt in the south-eastern corner of
what is now Bangla-desh. A year before, he had won a seat
in Pakistan’s first democratically elected parliament; the
Chakma leader was one of only two politicians who defeated
candidates of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s Awami League in
East Pakistan. When Indian forces liberated Bangladesh in
December 1971, Tridiv Roy was touring Southeast Asia. The
Chakmas have not seen their Raja since: Tridiv Roy decided
to give up his crown and kingdom for Pakistan, and flew
straight to Islamabad.
Sprinking of Chakmas 111
Today, Raja Tridiv Roy, 47, is an adviser to the Pakistan
government on minority affairs. But he is still at the centre
of a tug-of-war involving the Bangladesh government and
his tribal home. After Pakistan’s defeat in the Bangladesh
war, the government of Gen. Yahya Khan collapsed, and
successor Zulfikar Ali Bhutto offered Tridiv a post in his new
cabinet. Next day, Tridiv, a Buddhist, took the oath as
Minister for Tourism and Minority Affairs. But after nearly
two-and-a-half years, he faded out of the limelight and in
1974 he was made a governmental adviser.
Soon after Tridivs appointment as a minister, Sheikh
Muyjibur had begun sending feelers to him. If he would
return home, perhaps they could work out an arrangement.
Tridiv declined; he was happy in Pakistan and he didn’t
want a relationship with Mujib’s people. In September 1972,
when Bangladesh was applying for membership of the
United Nations, Bhutto sent the Raja as leader of Pakistan’s
delegation to the General Assembly. Mujib was delighted.
If he could woo Tridiv to Bangladesh’s side, it would be a
diplomatic coup.
Mujib pulled every trick out of the hat to get the Raja
to defect to Bangladesh. When his initial overtures were
turned down, Mujib sent an ambassador to Tridiv’s mother
in Chittagong Hill Tracts. At the urging of Muyjib’s men, the
Raja’s mother flew to New York to see her son. But Tridiv
was adamant. Unless the Bangladesh government gave the
Chakmas more autonomy and pledged not to interfere in
their internal affairs he could not even think of returning
to the hill tracts. In Tridiv’s place, the Bangladesh
government installed his eldest son, Devasish Roy, as Raja
of Chakma four years ago. “It was done with my knowledge
and blessings,” Tridiv told Asiaweekirecently of the
teenager’s appointment. “But I think most Chakma still
consider me as their Raja. Perhaps they think of me as the
elder Raja and my son [now 22] as the younger Raja.” .
112 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
But while Tridiv Roy has been working in Islamabad,
the Chakmas have been waging a war against the
Bangladesh government. Some 3,000 armed Chakma
tribesmen are involved in a guerilla battle against
Bangladeshi soldiers and paramilitary troops. The dispute
isn’t new. The predominantly Buddhist Chakmas have
traditionally been at loggerheads with Bengali Muslims who
form the majority in Bangladesh. Before the 1971 civil war,
Pakistan’s federal administration was in the hands of West
Pakistani Muslims who took a more neutral line between
the Bengalis of Chittagong and Chakmas. Since
Bangladesh’s independence, however, the Chakmas have
complained of atrocities and charged that Bengalis are
encroaching on their rights.
Will Tridiv ever go back to the Chittagong Hill Tracts?
“Td sure like to go back. My sons, my mother, most of my
family are there,” he told Correspondent Assif Shameen.
“But I won't go there as a Raja. I'd like to go there just to
visit my family. I don’t think I'd like to live there now.” But
that doesn’t mean he would be unwilling to mediate in the
ongoing dispute between the Chakmas and the Bangladesh
government. “It’s not for me to decide whether I have a role
to play. It’s up to the authorities in Dacca. If they think I
have a role to play, I'll be giad to help.” Until he gets an
invitation from Dacca, however, Tridiv Roy has to be content
with the routine of bureaucratic work in Islamabad. “I have
very little work to do, intellectually,” he says. “I only wish I
could do more, perhaps serve the government in some other
way.
484
Sir E. Jenkins (Punjab) to Rear-Admiral Viscount
Mountbatten of Burma
Telegram, L/P & J/8/663 : f 24
Immediate Lahore, 14 August 1947, 9.10 am
Confidential Received in India Office : 15 August, 1.05 am
Sprinking of Chakmas 113
No. 234-G. Situation in Lahore City and Amritsar District
still most unsatisfactory. Two trains reported attacked in
Rawalpindi are a presumably by Moslems as reprisal for Sikh
activities in Central Punjab. Re-arrangement of personnel as
preliminary to partition completed. Situation will now be for
new Governments to deal with.
Repeated to Secretary of State for India.
485
Rear-Admiral Viscount Mountbatten of Burma
of the Earl of Listowel
Telegram, L/P & J/10/117: f 108
Immediate New Delhi, 14 August 1947, 10.15 pm
Received : 15 August, 2.30 am
No. 3408—S. A crisis has arisen over awards of the
Boundary Commissions. [ am reporting in full in my weekly
report!’ the history of events which have led up to the
present situation. In the meantime it is essential that H.M.G.
should be in possession of outline of facts of the case, which
are as follows.
2. I personally have scrupulously avoided all connection
with Boundary Commissions, including interpretation of
their terms of reference and putting before them the various
points of view forwarded to me.
3. The leaders representing the two future Governments
themselves.
(2) selected personnel of Commissions, including
Radcliffe;*®
(b) laid down terms of reference;!’
(c) agreed inclusion of sub-clauses 3(4) and 4(3) of the
Indian Independence Bill which made Chairman’s
decision binding;}®
(d) issued a statement from Partition Council pledging
themselves to accept awards of Commissions
114 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
whatever these might be: and, as soon as awards
were announced, to enforce them impartially.
4. On 11h August Ismay received a verbal message from
Liaquat to the effect that Gurdaspur, or a large portion of
it, had been given to East Punjab by Boundary Commission;
--that it was reported that this was a political decision and
‘not a judicial one; and that, if it was true, it was a grave
injustice which would amount to a breach of faith on the
part of the British.
5. In his answer’ Ismay pointed out that award has not
yet been sent in; and emphasized the points mentioned in
paras. 2 and 3 of this telegram.
6. Radcliffe sent in the Bengal award on 12** August.
This contained the allocation of Chittagong Hill Traces to
Pakistan and I was warned that there would be serious
reactions amongst Congress leaders at this.
7. On 13" I received a letter?! from Patel, who had seen
a deputation of Chittagong Hill Tribes and told them that
the proposition that Chittagong Hill Tracts might be included
in Pakistan was so monstrous that if it should happen they
would be justified in resisting to utmost of their power and
count on his maximum support in such relations [ resistance].
He adds that any award against weight of local opinion and
of terms of reference, or without any referendum to ascertain
will of people concerned must, there fore, be considered a
collusive or partisan awards and will have to be repudiated.
8. I have taken following action:
(a) I have decided not to publish awards myself;
(6) I have told Governors concerned that new Provinces
must carry on notional partition boundaries on 15'*
and until awards are published and implemented,”
(c) I have arranged a meeting of representatives of
the two Governments on the (work) in order:
Sprinking of Chakmas 115
(t) to decide upon timing and method of publication
and
(1) to decide method of implementing undertaking of
Partition Council to accept award and to enforce
decision contained in it.
9. My next telegram” contains a summary of Boundary
Commission’s award.*°
487
Minutes*6 of a Meeting between Rear-Admiral Viscount
Mountbatten of Burma and representatives of
India and Pakistan
L/P & J/10 117 : ff 19-22
CONFIDENTIAL
Those present at this Meeting held at Government House,
New Delhi, on 16 August 1947 at 5.00 pm were: Rear-
Admiral Viscount Mountbatten of Burma, Pandit Nehru, Mr
Liaquat Ali Khan, Sardar Patel, Mr. Fazlur Rahman,
Sardar Baldev Singh; Mr Mohammad Ali, Rao Bahadur,
V.P Menon, Lieutenant-Colonel Erskine Crum
(Secretariat)
THE AWARDS OF THE BOUNDARY
COMMISSIONS
1. The meeting considered the awards“! of the Boundary
Commissions, copies of which had been given to the Ministers
after the Joint Defence Council meeting that morning.
Bengal
2. PANDIT NEHRU said that he had never considered
that the allocation of the Chittagong Hill Tracts to East
Bengal was possible under the terms of reference of the
Boundary Commission. Eminent lawyers had confirmed this
point of view. These Tracts were an excluded area, and were
116 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
not represented in the Bengal Council. He and his colleagues
had given assurances to petty chiefs from the Chittagong
Hill Tracts who had come to see them, that there was no
question of the territory being included in Pakistan. The
population of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, though small
(approximately 42 million) was 97% Buddhist and Hindu.
There was not the least doubt that the people themselves
would prefer to form part of India. On religious and cultural
grounds the Chittagong Hill Tracts should form part of
India. Sir Cyril Radcliffe had no business to touch them.
3. THE GOVERNOR GENERAL explained the reasons
why Sir Cyril Radcliffe has included the Chittagong Hill
Tracts in East Bengal. He emphasized particularly the
economic ties which bound Chittagong District and the Hill
Tracts together. He stressed the importance to Chittagong
Port of the proper supervision of the Karnaphuli River,
which ran through the Hill Tracts.
4. MR. FAZLUR RAHMAN gave his opinion that the
Chittagong Hill Tracts could not exist if separated from
Chittagong District. In his view, the allocation of these Tracts
to East Bengal was unquestionably permissible under the
terms of reference. In fact the “contiguity” clause of the terms
of reference would not have permitted their allocation to
West Bengal.
5. THE GOVERNOR GENERAL said that it had been
Sir Frederick Burrows’ view that that whole economy of the
Chittagong Hill Tracts would be upset if they were not left
with East Bengal. However, he had confirmed that Sir
Frederick had not expressed any view on this matter to Sir
Cyril Radcliffe, so he could not be said to have influenced
the decision.
6. THE GOVERNOR GENERAL suggested the
possibility of a compromise whereby the upper waters of the
Karnaphuli would be protected through the allocation of a
Sprinking of Chakmas 117
strip of territory on either side of the river to East Bengal,
while the administration of the rest of the Hill Tracts would
be undertaken by India.
7. This was not considered a satisfactory solution by
either party. PANDIT NEHRU’S view was that India should
undertake the administration of the whole territory; a strip
on either side of the river allocated to Pakistan would cut
the territory in two. If the Chittagong Hill Tracts were given
to India, an agreement between the two Dominion
government, whereby Pakistan would obtain all desired
facilities, could well be made.
8. MR. LIAQUAT ALI KHAN said that he could not
consider any suggestion of an adjustment in this territory
alone. The awards of both Commissions must be looked at
as a whole. If this was done, it would be found that Sir Cyril
Radcliffe had completely ignored the fundamental basis of
his terms of reference. Moreover, the Chittagong Hill
Tracts were the only source of hydro-electric power in East
Bengal.
9. THE GOVERNOR GENERAL then suggested that
the two Governments might agree on an exchange of
territory, whereby the Chittagong Hill Tracts would go to
India and some predominantly Muslim area which had been
allotted by the commission to India would go to Pakistan.
10. MR. LIAQUAT ALI KHAN emphasized that the
awards of the Commission, taken as a whole, had been so
unfavourable to Pakistan, that he could not consider any
minor modification only, such as had been suggested. Finally,
Indian leaders exchanged CHT for Ferozpur junction
between villages Rattoke, Sahjra and Mabbuke. The line
will then run north-east between the villages Rattoke and
Mabbuke to the junction of villages Rattoke, Mabbuke, and
Gajjal. From that point the line will run along the boundary
118 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
between villages Mabbuke and Gajjal, and then turn south
along the eastern boundary of village Mabbuke to its
junction with village Nagar Aimanpur. It will then turn
along the north-eastern boundary of village Nagar
Aimanpur, and run along its eastern boundary to its
junction with village Masteke. From there it will run along
the eastern boundary of village Masteke to where it meets
the boundary between the tahsils of Kasur and Ferozepore.
For the purpose of identifying the villages referred to in
this paragraph, I attach a map*® of the Kasur tahsil
authorized by the then Settlement Officer, Lahore District,
which was supplied to the Commission by the Provincial
government.
The line will then run in a south-westerly direction down
the Sutlej River on the boundary between the Districts of
Lahore and Ferozepre to the point where the districts of
Ferozepore, Lahore and Montgomery meet. It will continue
along the boundary between the districts of Ferozepore and
Montgomery to the point where this boundary meet the
border of Bahawalpur State. The district boundaries, and
not the actual course of the Sutlej River, shall in each
case constitute the boundary between the East and West
Punjab.
It is my intention that this boundary line should ensure
that the canal head works at Sulemanke will fall within the
territorial jurisdiction of the West Punjab. If the existing
delimitation of the boundaries of Montgomery District does
not ensure this, I award to the West Punjab so much of the
territory concerned as covers the head works, and the
boundary shall be adjusted accordingly.
So much of the Punjab Province as lies to the west of
the line demarcated in the preceding paragraphs shall be
the territory of the West Punjab. So much of the territory
of the Punjab Province as lies to the east of that line shall
be the territory of the East Punjab.
Sprinking of Chakmas 119
Appendix II to No. 488
L/P & J/10/117 : ff 40-47
New Delhi, 12 August 1947
REPORT
His Excellency the Governor-General.
1. I have the honour to present the decision and award
of the Bengal Boundary Commission, which by virtue of
section 3 of the Indian Independence Act, 1947, is
represented by my decision as Chairman of that
Commission. This award relates to the division of the
Province of Bengal, and the Commission’s award in respect
of the District of Sylhet and areas adjoining thereto will be
recorded in a separate report.
2. The Bengal Boundary Commission was constituted by
the announcement of the Governor-General dated the 30th
of June, 1947, Reference No, D50/7/47R. The members of
the Commission thereby appointed were
Mr. Justice Bijan Kuman Mukherjee,
Mr. Justice C.C. Biswas,
Mr. Justice Abu Saleh Mohamed Akram, and
Mr. Justice S. A. Rahman.
I was subsequently appointed Chairman of this
Commission.
3. The terms of reference of the Commission, as set out
in the announcement, were as follows:—
“The Boundary Commission is instructed to demarcate
the boundaries of the two parts of Bengal on the basis
of ascertaining the contiguous [majority] areas of
Muslims and non-Muslims. In doing so, it will also take
into account other factors,”
We were desired to arrive at a decision as soon as
possible before the 15th of August.
120 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
4. After preliminary meetings, the Commission invited
the submission of memoranda and representation by
interested parties. A very large number of memoranda and
representations was received.
5. The public sittings of the commission took place at
Calcutta, and extended from Wednesday the 16th of July
1947, to Thursday the 24th of July 1947, inclusive, with the
exception of Sunday, the 20th of July. Arguments were
presented to the Commission by numerous parties on both
sides, but the main cases were presented by counsel on
behalf of the Indian National Congress, the Bengal
Provincial Hindu Mahasabha and the New Bengal
Association on the one hand, and on behalf of the Muslim
League on the other. In view of the fact that I was acting
also as Chairman of the Punjab Boundary Commission,
whose proceedings were taking place simultaneously with
the proceedings of the Bengal Boundary Commission, I did
not attend the public sittings in person, but made
arrangements to study daily the record of the proceedings
and all material submitted for our consideration.
6. After the close of the public sittings, the remainder
of the time of the Commission was devoted to clarification
and discussion of the issues involved. Our discussions took
place at Calcutta.
7. The question of drawing a satisfactory boundary line
under our terms of reference between East and West Bengal
was one to which the parties concerned propounded the most
diverse solutions. The province offers few, if any, satisfactory
natural boundaries, and its development has been on lines
that do not well accord with a division by contiguous
majority areas of Muslim and non-Muslim majorities.
8. In my view, the demarcation of a boundary line
between East and West Bengal depended on the answers to
be given to certain basic questions which may be stated as
follows:—
Sprinking of Chakmas 121
(1) To which State was the City of Calcutta to be
assigned, or was it possible to adopt any method of
dividing the City between the two States?
(2) If the City of Calcutta must be assigned as a whole
to one or other of the States, what were its
indispensable claims to the control of territory, such
as all or part of the Nadia River system or the Kulti
rivers, upon which the life of Calcutta as a city and
port depended?
(3) Could the attractions of the Ganges—Padma—
Madhumati river line displace the strong claims of
the heavy concentration of Muslim majorities in the
districts of Jessore and Nadia without doing too great
a violence to the principle of our terms of reference?
(4) Could the district of Khulna usefully be held by a
State different from that which held the district of
Jessore?
(5) Was it right to assign to Eastern Bengal the
considerable block of non-Muslim majorities in the
districts of Malda and Dinajpur?
(6) Which State’s claim ought to prevail in respect of the
Districts of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri, in which the
Muslim population amounted to 2.42 per cent of the
whole in the case of Darjeeling, and to 23.8 per cent
of the whole in the case of Jalpaiguri, but which
constituted an area not in any natural sense
contiguous to another non-Muslim area of Bengal?
(7) To which State should the Chittagong Hill Tracts be
assigned, an area in which the Muslim population
was only 3 per cent of the whole, but which it was
difficult to assign to a State different from that which
controlled the district of Chittagong itself?
122 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
9. After much discussion, my colleagues found that
they were unable to arrive at an agreed view on any of
these major issues.” There were of course considerable areas
of the Province in the south-west and north-east and east,
which provoked no controversy on either side: but, in the
absence of any reconciliation on all main question affecting
the drawing of the boundary itself, my colleagues assented
to the view at the close of our discussions that I had no
alternative but to proceed to give my own decision.
10. This I now proceed to do: but I should like at the same
time to express my gratitude to my colleagues for their
indispensable assistance in clarifying and discussing the
difficult questions involved. The demarcation of the
boundary line is described in detail in the schedule which
forms Annexure A to this award, and in the map attached
thereto, Annexure B. The map is annexed for purposes of
illustration, and if there should be any divergence between
the boundary as described in Annexure A and as delineated
on the map in Annexure B,°° the description in Annexure A
is to prevail.
11. 1 have done what I can in drawing the line to
eliminate any avoidable cutting of railway communications
and of river systems, which are of importance to the life of
the province: but it is quite impossible to draw a boundary
under our terms of reference without causing some
interruption of this sort, and I can only express the hope
that arrangements can be made and maintained between
the two States that will minimize the consequences of this
interruptions as far as possible.
CYRIL RADCLIFFE
Annexure A to Appendix IT
A line shall be drawn along the boundary between the
Thana of Phansidewa in the District of Darjeeling and the
Thana Tetulia in the District of Jalpaiguri from the point
where that boundary meets the Province of Bihar and then
Sprinking of Chakmas 123
along the boundary between the Thanas of Tetulia and
Rajganj; the Thanas of Pachagar and Rajganj, and the
Thanas of Pachagar and Jalpaiguri, and shall then continue
along the northern corner of the Thana Debiganj to the
boundary of the State of Cooch-Behar. The District of
Darjeeling and so north of the District of Jalpaiguri as lies
north of this line shall belong to West Bengal, but the
Thana of Patgram and any other portion of Jalpaiguri
District which lies to the east or south shall belong to East
Bengal.
A line shall then be drawn from the point where the
boundary between the Thanas of Haripur and Raiganj in
the District of Dinajpur meets the border of the Province of
Bihar to the point where the boundary between the Districts
of 24 Parganas and Khulna meets the Bay of Bengal. This
line shall follow the course indicted in the following
paragraphs. So much of the Province of Bengal as lies to the
west of it shall belong to West Bengal. Subject to what has
been provided in paragraph I above with regard to the
Districts of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri, the remainder of the
Province of Bengal shall belong to East Bengal.
1. In my view, the question is limited to the districts of
Sylhet and Cachar, since of the other districts of Assam that
can be said to adjoin Sylhet neither the Garo Hills nor the
Khasi and Jaintia Hills nor the Lushai Hills have anything
approaching a Muslim majority of population in respect of
which a claim could be made.
2. Out of 35 thanas in Sylhet, 8 have non-Muslim
majorities; but of these eight, two—Sulla and Ajmirigan]
(which is in any event divided almost evenly between
Muslims and non-Muslims), are entirely surrounded by
preponderatingly Muslim areas and must therefore go with
them to East Bengal. The other six thanas comprising a
population of over 530,000 people stretch in a continuous
line along part of the southern border of Sylhet District. They
124 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
are divided between two sub-divisions, of which one, South
Sylhet, comprising a population of over 515,000 people, has
in fact a non-Muslim majority of some 40,000; while the
other, Karimganj, with a population of over 568,000 people,
has a Muslim majority that is a little larger.
3. With regard to the District of Cachar, one thana,
Hailakandi, has a Muslim majority and is contiguous to the
Muslim thanas of Badarpur and Karimganj in the District
of Sylhet. This thana forms, with the thana of Katlichara
immediately to its south, the sub-division of Hailakandi, and
in the Sub-division as a whole Muslims enjoy a very small
majority being 51% of the total population. I think that the
dependence of Katlichara on Hailakandi for normal
communications makes it important that the area should be
under one jurisdiction, and that the Muslims would have
at any rate a strong presumptive claim for the transfer of
the Sub-division of Hailakandi, comprising a population of
166,536, from the Province of Assam to the Province of East
Bengal. 7
4, But a study of the map shows, in my judgment, that
a division on these lines would present problems of
administration that might gravely affect the future welfare
and happiness of the whole District. Not only would the six
non-Muslim thanas of Sylhet be completely divorced from
the rest of Assam if the Muslim claim to Hailakandi were
recognized, but they form a strip running east and west
whereas the natural division of the land is north and south
and they effect an awkward severance of the railway line
through Sylhet, so that, for instance, the junction for the
town of Sylhet itself, the capital of the district, would lie in
Assam, not in East Bengal.
5. In those circumstances I think that some exchange
of territories must be effected if a workable division is to
result. Some of the non-Muslim thanas must go to East
Bengal and some Muslim territory and Hailakandi must be
Sprinking of Chakmas 125
retained by Assam. Accordingly I decide and award as
follows:—
A line shall be drawn from the point where the boundary
between the Thanas of Patharkandi and Kulaura meets the
frontier of Tripura State and shall run north along the
boundary between those Thanas, then along the boundary
between the Thanas of Patharkandi and Barlekha, then
along the boundary between the Thanas of Karimganj and
Barlekha, and then along the boundary between the Thanas
of Karimganj and Beani Bazar to the point where that
boundary meets the River Kusiyara. The line shall then turn
- to the east taking the River Kusiyara as the boundary and
run to the point where that river meets the boundary
between the Districts of Sylhet and Cachar. The centre line
of the main stream or channel shall constitute the boundary.
So much of the District of Sylhet as lies to the west and north
of this line shall be detached from the Province of Assam
and transferred to the Province of East Bengal. No other
part of the Province of Assam shall be transferred.
6. For purposes of illustration a map marked A®! is
attached on which the line is delineated. In the event of any
divergence between the line as delineated on the map and
as described in paragraph 13, the written description is to
prevail.
CYRIL RADCLIFFE
489
Viceroy’s Personal Report No. 17
L/PO/6/ 1238: ff 245-63
TOP SECRET
AND PERSONAL
16 August 1947
This last week of British rule in India has been the most
hectic of any. We have been working longer hours and under
more trying conditions, and with crises of differing
126 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
magnitudes arising every day, and sometimes two or three
times a day. The problem of the States continued to occupy
most of my time, particularly of those Rulers who have kept
changing their mind up to the last moment, whether to
accede to India, to Pakistan, or to neither. I paid my farewell
visit to Karachi, and took part in unbelievable scenes on the
day of the transfer of power in Delhi. The issue which has
created the greatest and most serious crisis to date has been
the awards of the Boundary Commissions, a summary of
which is given in Appendix I.**
2. I had always anticipated that the awards could not
possibly be popular with either party, and that both would
probably accuse the Chairman of the Boundary Commissions
of being biased against them. I have therefore taken the
greatest pains not to get mixed up in the deliberations of
the Commissions in any way. In fact, though I have
repeatedly been asked both to interpret the Boundary
Commissions terms of reference and to put forward to them
certain points of view (for example on behalf of the Sikh
Princes), I have resolutely refused to do this.*8 I have firmly
kept out of the whole business but I am afraid that there is
still a large section of public opinion in this country which -
is firmly convinced that I will settle the matter finally.34 For
this reason I made my position as regards the Boundary
awards absolutely clear in my address to the Indian
Constituent Assembly (Appendix II).*°
3. I feel it necessary to put on record a brief review of
the history of the Boundary Commissions, for the crisis that
has been caused is in my opinion the most serious we have
ever had to meet, and might have undone all the work of
the past four months—so bitter have been the feelings.
4. On 10th June, Nehru wrote agreeing to the proposal
that each Commission should consist of an independent
chairman and four other persons of whom two would be
nominated by the Congress and two by the Muslim
League.*° This proposal was agreed to by Jinnah.*”
Sprinking of Chakmas 127
5. On 12 June, Nehru sent in the proposed terms of
reference for the Boundary Commissions®® which were
accepted by Jinnah on 23rd June.®? These were the exact
terms which were subsequently issued, namely:—
For the Punjab
The Boundary Commission is instructed to demarcate the
boundaries of the two parts of the Punjab on the basis of
ascertaining the contiguous majority areas of Muslims and
non-Muslims. In doing so it will also take into account other
factors.
For Bengal
The Boundary Commission is instructed to demarcate the
boundaries of the two parts of Bengal on the basis of
ascertaining the contiguous majority areas of Muslims and
non-)iuslims. In doing so it will also take into account other
factors.
For Sylhet
In the event of the referendum in Sylhet District of
Assam resulting in favour of amalgamation with Eastern
Bengal, the Boundary Commission for Bengal will also
demarcate the Muslim majority areas of Sylhet District and
contiguous Muslim Majority areas of adjoining districts.
6. At a Partition Council Meeting on 27th June*®? the
leaders of both parties agreed that Sir Cyril Radcliffe, whose
name had been put forward as a candidate for the Arbitral
Tribunal, should be asked to be Chairman of both Boundary
Commissions. At a Partition Council Meeting on 10th July,*!
it was agreed that no direction in addition to the terms of
reference should be given to the Boundary Commissions;
and that it should be left to their own discretion to interpret
their terms of reference.
7. At this same Partition Council Meeting it was agreed
that the Secretary of State should be asked to add the .
following sub-clause to the Indian Independence Bill**. It
128 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
was added as sub-clause (4) and sub-clause (3) to Section
3 and 4 respectively:—
“In this section, the expression ‘award’ means, in relation
to a boundary commission, the decisions of the chairman of
that commission contained in his report to the Governor—
General at the conclusion of the Commission’s
proceedings.”**
8. At a Meeting on 22nd July, the Partition Council
issued a statement in which they pledged themselves to
accept the awards of the Boundary Commissions whatever
these might be; and, as soon as the awards were announced,
to enforce them impartially.
9. The first indication that the reception which the
awards were likely to have was going to be even worse than
anticipated was contained in a message given to Ismay on
behalf of Liaquat Ali Khan by the Pakistan Cabinet
Secretary (Mohamed Ali) during a vist to Delhi from
Karachi. This was a verbal message, but very strongly
worded, to the effect that if indeed it proved true that the
Gurdaspur district in the north Punjab area or even a large
part of it had been given to East Punjab by the Boundary
Commission, this would be regarded as a most serious fact
by Jinnah and the Pakistan Government. If it turned out
that this was a political and not a judicial decision, then this
would amount to so grave a breach of faith as to imperil
future friendly relations between Pakistan and the British.
10. In answering Liaquat, on 1ith August,*® Ismay
(while pointing out that even I had not received the award)
reminded him that I had had nothing to do with the
Boundary Commissions; that I was determined to keep clear
of the whole business; and that the Indian leaders
themselves had selected the personnel of the Boundary
:Commissions, drafted their terms of reference, and
undertaken to implement their awards.
Sprinking of Chakmas | 129
11. It was on Tuesday, 12th August, that I was finally
informed by Radcliffe that his awards would be ready by ~
noon the following day, just too late for me to see before
leaving for Karachi. For some time past, I and my staff had
been considering the question of when and how these
awards should be published.*® From the purely
administrative point of view, there were considerable
advantages in immediate publication so that the new
boundaries could take effect from 15th August, and the
officials of the right Dominion could be in their places to look
after the districts which had been allotted to their side
before that date. However, it had been obvious all along that,
the later we postponed publication, the less would the
inevitable odium react upon the British.
12. The matter came to a head at the Meeting which I
held with members of my staff on the evening of the 12th.*’
The Bengal award had by then been sent in but I had
deliberately refrained from reading it. | was told however
that it allotted the Chittagong Hill Tracts to Pakistan. My
Reforms Commissioner, V.P. Menon, was present at the
meeting and was able to warn me of the disastrous effects
that this was likely to have on the Congress leaders. He
went so far as to say that Nehru and Patel were both certain .
to blow up, since they had only recently assured a
delegation from the Chittagong Hill Tracts that there was
no question of their being allotted to Pakistan, (V.P. Menon
admitted that they had no possible authority for making such
a statement).
13. V.P. Menon went on to say that if the details of the
award were given to them before the 15th he thought they
might well refuse to attend the meeting of the Constituent
Assembly which I was to address. If given to them later in
the day he thought they would refuse to come to the State
banquet and the evening party. In any case he said that
unless the situation were handled with the utmost care,
Congress would blow up. I have never known V.P. Menon
130 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
to mislead me, and | decided that somehow we must prevent
the leaders from knowing the details of the award until after
the 15th August; all our work and the hope of good Indo—
‘British relations on the day of the transfer of power would
risk being destroyed if we could not do this.
14. On 13th August!*5 I therefore wrote to Jinnah and
Nehru telling them that I had not received all the awards
by the time I left for Karachi, though I expected them that
afternoon; and suggesting that there should be a meeting
at Government House on the 16th August to decide upon
the timing and method of publication, and also the method
of implementing the undertaking of the Partition Council
to accept the award and to enforce the decisions contained
in it.
15. Just as I was signing the letter to Nehru a letter
arrived from Patel which is so incredible that I attach a copy
of the complete letter as Appendix III.*9 From this it will
be seen that the one man I! had regarded as a real
statesman with both feet firmly on the ground, and a man
of honour whose word was his bond, had turned out to be
as hysterical as the rest. Here he was suggesting that if
indeed the Chittagong Hill Tracts were put into East Bengal
the people would be justified in resisting this award by force
and that the Central Government would be bound to support
them! So much for his undertaking on behalf of India to
accept and implement the awards what ever they might be.
16. The crazy part about all this is that Burrows had
explained to me that the whole economic life of the people
of the Hill Tracts depends upon East Bengal, that there are
only one or two indifferent tracks through the jungle into
Assam, and that it would be disastrous for the people
themselves to be cut off from East Bengal. The population
consists of less than a quarter of a million, nearly all
tribesmen who, if they have any religion at all, are
- Buddhists (and so are technically non-Muslims, under the
Sprinking of Chakmas 131
terms of the Boundary Commission). In a sense Chittagong,
the only port of East Bengal, also depends upon the Hill
Tracts; for if the jungles of the latter were subjected to
unrestricted felling, I am told that Chittagong port would
silt up. Candidly I was amazed that such a terrific crisis
should have blown up over so small a matter. However, I |
have been long enough in India to realize that major crises
are by no means confined to big matters.
17. Once more I had cause to thank the invaluable V.P.
Menon for deliverance from the disaster which would have
followed on my publishing the awards in good faith without
prior reference to the leaders. Having decided not to
announce the awards before the 15*® August I had no
alternative but to send instructions to the Governors” that
the Governments of the two halves of the split Provinces
would have to take charge up to the national®! boundary
on 15th August, pending publication and implementation of
the awards or of mutually agreed boundaries.
18. When I was at Karachi, although Liaquat saw the
absolute need for him to come to Delhi on the 16th both to
discuss the terrible situation in the completed by the end of
February 1948. We do not however consider it necessary to
modify our above conclusions in the light of this fresh
information.
TEDDER.
R.R. MCGRIGOR, V.C.N.S.
F.E.W. SIMPSON, V.C.1L.G:S.
No. 335
363
Sir F. Burrows (Bengal) to Rear-Admiral Viscount
Mountbatten of Burma Telegram, R/31/153: f 231
IMPORTANT
SECRET
26 June 1947, 7.40 pm
Received: 27 June, 9am
132 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
174-S. My telegram 161-S dated 18th June,°* Indian
Dominion Bill. I have following supplementary comment.
Under clause 3(3)(b) of the Bill®* Chittagong Hill Tracts will,
until otherwise determined, fall within the new Province
of West Bengal. For reasons indicated in my immediately
succeeding telegram I regard this as entirely impracticable
proposition since all of the Hill Tracts’ links are with
Chittagong District. Pending negotiations between the two
Dominions, I would strongly press for amendment of the Bill
to allow Hill Tracts to be treated at all events temporarily
as part of territories of East Bengal.
364
Sir EF. Burrows (Bengal) to Rear-Admiral Viscount
Mountbatten of Burma Telegram, R/3/1/153: ff 232-3
IMPORTANT
CONFIDENTIAL
26 June 1947, 7.40 pm
Received: 27 June, 9am
No. 175-C. My immediate preceding telegram.
. Chittagong Hill Tract. Constitutional position of the Hill
Tracts was fully discussed in memorandum about their
future administration forwarded with para. 4 of my General
Letter F.J.B.—24 dated May 7th. It was recommended that
Hill Tracts should continue to remain attached to the
Province of Bengal and that their future administration
should rest with the Provincial Government. Their only easy
means of communication with outside world is through
Chittagong District and all their commerce and
administrative ties are with that District. It would be wholly
impracticable for them to be administered as part of West
Bengal Province.
Sprinking of Chakmas 133
Population figures in 1941 Census are:
Tribals — 233,392
Muslims — 17,270
Hindus — 4,881
Others — 1510
Total — 247,053
When I saw the three Chiefs of the Tracts on May 3rd
they strongly deprecated being placed under the Muslim
Province of East Bengal and indicated preference for
federation with Tripura and Assam States; (group corrupt)
admitted that all their links were with Bengal. Great weight
need not be attached to opinion of the Chiefs who are more
concerned with personal aggrandisement than the welfare
of the population.
3. Neither major political party has yet evinced any
strong interest in tracts which-as an excluded area have
been outside the main stream of political life of the province.
But League are likely to press for inclusion in Kast Bengal,
if only because hydro—electrical project for electrification of
Chittagong Area depends on the dam at Barkal on
Karnaphuli River in the interior of tracts. Congress will
naturally try to keep any non-Muslim Area out of Muslim
hands.
4. Though reference to “Other factors” in terms of
reference of the Boundary Commission gives Commission
considerable scope, J assume that the fate of Hill Tracts
would be a matter for negotiation between the two Dominion
Govts. or their Constituent Assemblies and not for decision
of Boundary Commission.
5. Your Joint Secretary Christie was Deputy
Commissioner Hill Tracts for two years and will be able to
give you much local colour.
134 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
365
Rear-Admiral Viscount Mountbatten of Burma to the Earl
of Listowel Telegram, R/3/ 1/153: ff 227-8
MOST IMMEDIATE
SECRET
NEW DELHI, 26 June 1947, 10 pm
Received: 26 June, 7.20 pm
No. 1598-S. Indian Independence Bill. Your telegrams
8155, 8156, 8162, 8163, 8176, 8184, 8185 and 8194 of 25th
June. All textual amendments communication.
430 |
Minutes by Lieutenant—Colonel Erskine Crum, Sir G. Abell
and Rear—Admiral Viscount Mountbatten of Burma
R/3/1/153: f 290
30 June 1947
1. Since the Staff Meeting, Sundaram and I have been
in communication with V.P. Menon about the proposal to
raise, at the meeting tomorrow, the question of the
Chittagong Hill Tracts.5* Menon is very strongly of the view
that to arise this question tomorrow would lead to extreme
trouble. He even offered to dress immediately and come over
and personally convince H.E. on this point. He says that the
Governor of Bengal*” is looking at the matter from a purely
provincial point of view. To depart from the “Muslim-
majority” principle at this stage would be exceedingly
dangerous and lead to endless complications.
2. I have also looked up an extract from a letter of 16th
May from Pandit Nehru, which reads:—
“There is no mention in the document of the Chittagong
Hill areas which are predominantly Hindu and
Buddhist. These are Excluded areas lying to the east of
East Bengal. They have nothing in common with
Chittagong District or with East Bengal. They will
Sprinking of Chakmas 135
naturally line up with some of the Hindu States to the
north of them and possibly with Assam.”
3. I have prepared the papers about the Chittagong
Hill Tracts, but recommend that these should not be
produced unless the Muslim League representatives raise the
matter tomorrow. Sundaram agrees. |
V.F. ERSKINE CRUM |
I am going to see V.P. Menon tonight, but I put this up
for immediate information. I think the Chittagong Hill
states must at least be mentioned though the feasible
alternative are limited to:
(1) leaving things as they are for future discussion,
and
(2) insisting that some arrangement be made before the
appointed day to ascertain the will of the
inhabitants.
G.E.B. ABELL
No action is to be taken to raise this issue with any of
the leaders unless the League raise it. I hope to discuss it
with VP about 10.15.
4. As regards the Portuguese, Sir G. Bajpai said that
the Government of India would probably ask us to take some
action with the Portuguese government. (As I would know,
their relations were far from good, as India had opposed
Portugal’s admission to U.N.O.). I said that, speaking
personally, I thought it might be very difficult for H.M.
Government to do this on behalf of India; what action did
he contemplate asking us to take? He replied “soundings”.
I suggested that before pursuing the matter of the
Portuguese possessions, it might be advisable for the
government of India to see whether some accommodation
could be reached with the French. But I rather expect that
Nationalist exuberance after August 15th will incline them
to push ahead.
136 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
452
Sardar Patel to Rear-Admiral Viscount Mountbatten of
Burma
L/PO/6/ 123: ff 273-5
MOST IMMEDIATE
AND PERSONAL
NEW DELHI, 13 August 1947
A deputation of the Chittagong Hill Tribes saw me this
morning and expressed to me their grave apprehension that
their area was going to be included in East Bengal under
the Boundary Commission award. I am unaware of the
source of their information, but they seemed to be well-
convinced that this was going to happen. I have told them
that the proposition was so monstrous that if it should
happen they would be justified in resisting to the utmost to
their power and count on our maximum support in such
resistance. :
2. Personally, I feel it is inconceivable that such a blatant
and patent breach of terms of reference should be
perpetrated by the Chairman of the boundary commission.
We have all along felt that the future of this area was not
at all in doubt. No fair reading of the terms of reference or
appreciation of the factual position could make a ninety-
seven per cent non-Muslim area a part of the award relating
to the boundary of East Bengal. Such a decision would also
jeopardise the position of the adjoining Tripura State which
is a Hindu State with predominantly Hindu population, and
which has acceded to the Indian Dominion and has joined
the Union Constituent Assembly.
3. I, therefore, fell bound to draw you attention to the
serious consequences which would follow such a manifestly
unjust award. There is no doubt from the report of the Tribal
Areas Committee who collected impeachable evidence on the
spot and whose views I represented to the Chairman of the
Sprinking of Chakmas 137
Commission in a letter (copy enclosed) which J sent to him
as Chairman of the Advisory Committee of the Constituent
Assembly, that the entire population of this area is in favour
of remaining in the Indian Union.
4. Any award against the weight of local opinion and
of the terms of reference, or without any referendum to
ascertain the will of the people concerned must, therefore,
be construed a collusive or partisan award and will have,
therefore, to be repudiated by us. I make this statement with
a full sense of responsibility as one who was party to the
setting up of the Commission. But you cannot clearly expect
us to submit to a proceeding which would be in violation of
the basic conception underlying the commission’s terms of
reference.
5. I must also point out that public reaction would
wholly and overwhelmingly support us in such repudiation.
Already there is considerable doubt whether they would get
an impartial award under the novel and strange procedure
adopted by the Chairman of not even hearing the
arguments. Many persons have come and complained to me
that he has rendered himself liable, by this means, to being
influenced by circles in your Secretariat whose antipathies
to India and sympathies with the League are well known.
The selection, as Secretary of the Commission, of one of the
European officers of the Punjab, who are generally
associated in public mind with pro-League sympathies, had
not mended matters. I have generally adopted an indifferent
attitude to these complaints, but if the award confirms the
worst fears entertained by the public, it is impossible for me
to predict the volume of bitterness and rancour which would
be let loose and I am certain that this will create a situation
which both you and I may have to regret.
Yours sincerely,
VALLABHBHAI PATEL
138 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Enclosure to No. 452
Copy of letter No. CA/38/COM/47, dated the 25th July,
1947, from the Chairman, Advisory Committee on
Minorities, Fundamental Rights, Tribal and Excluded Areas,
Constituent Assembly of India, Council House, New Delhi,
to The Chairman, The Bengal Boundary Commission,
Calcutta.
Subject:—Chittagong Hill Tracts
I have the honour to address you on behalf of the
Advisory Committee set up in pursuance of paragraph 20
of the Statement of the 16th May 1946°5 by the Constituent
Assembly of India. A Sub-Committee was set up by the
Advisory Committee to report on a scheme of administration
for the Excluded Areas. This Sub-Committee visited the
Chittagong Hill Tracts, which is an Excluded Area, in Apml
1947 and took the evidence of local official, non-officials and
associations who were interested in the future
administration of the area. The Sub-Committee have
recently considered the future administration of the
Chittagong Hill Tracts and although they are not in a
position to send their complete report yet, they have pointed
out that the people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts were
unanimously against the Tracts forming a part of Bengal
(as it then was) and that in view of the predominantly non-
Muslim character of its population the area should in no
circumstances be included in East Bengal. They have also
pointed out that the Tracts adjoin and form part of the
Lushai Hills of Assam and that communications exist
between them.
I have the honour to bring the views of the Sub-
Committee on behalf of the Advisory Committee to your
notice and to say that I am fully in agreement with them.
A copy of the evidence recorded by the Sub-committee is
enclosed herewith.*°
Sprinking of Chakmas 139
453
Rear-Admiral Viscount Mountbatten of Burma to Sir F.
Burrows (Bengal) and Sir E. Jenkins (Punjab). Repeated
to Mr. Christie,
New Delhi
Telegram, R/3/1/157: f 281
MOST IMMEDIATE
BY TELEPHONE
CAMP KARACHI, 13 August 1947, 9.00 pm
No. 2907-S. No objection to your announcing that since
the award of the Boundary Commission is unlikely to be
READY FOR PUBLICATION BEFORE 16TH AUGUST the
Government of East and West Bengal/Punjab will take
charge up to the national repeat national boundary pending
publication and implementation of the Award.
(For J.P.S.V. only: Please make similar announcement
in Delhi after securing concurrence of Pandit Nehru.
Pakistan Government have agreed). |
454
Rear-Admiral Viscount Mountbatten of
Burma to Pandit Nehru
R/3/1/157: f 277
NO. 1446/17
Dear Mr Nehru,
14 August 1947
I am advised that Sir Cyril Radcliffe is sending me the
Award of the Boundary.
References
1. Mililarization and CHT by Chndra Ray.
2. Neither Here Nor there by Rosenmary Zoramchans.
140 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
3. When Chakmas people were happy by Adam Curle.
4. The Tribes of Brahmaputra Valley by L.A. Waddel.
5. The Shrine on the Hill by Raja Tridir Roy.
6. Peace Accord CHT (1997).
7. Survival Statement in the CHT for the European
Human Rights Conference in June 17, 2005.
8. The Daily Pratom Alo by Saiful Alam and A.K. Rana on
14.8.2004.
9. The Boundary Commission's report on the creation of East
and West Bengal.
10. No. 489, paras. 2-18. .
11. See Vol. XI, Nos. 128, 175, Iten 2, 207, 317 and 369
para. I
12. See Ibid., Nos. 158 and 311, para. 2.
13. See No. 52, Case No. P.C. 26/4/47 and No. 164.
14. No. 224.
15. No. 428.
16. No. 224.
17. No. 452.
18. See No. 446; also No. 453.
19. See No. 454 and its note 2, and No. 472.
20. Not printed. The awards of the Boundary Commissions
are printed as Appendices to No. 488.
21. In tel. 579 of 16 August Sir A. Carter asked Sir T. Shone
to convey to Lord Ismay a message which referred to
the above telegram from Lord Mountbatten (and the
telegraphic summary of the award which succeeded it) and
continued: ‘In view of great importance of this matter
could you arrange to Shone know privately of any
significant developments in this matter up to the time of
publication of the awards, whenever that may be, so that
Shone can keep Secretary of State for Commonwealth
Relations secretly informed of the position.’ L/P&J/10/117:
ff 104—5.
22. In his letter of 19 August to Sir T. Shone, Commander
Nicholls explained that he had been asked by Lord
Sprinking of Chakmas 141
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29,
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
Mountbatten to forward a copy of these minutes and
referred to the message from the Commonwealth
Relations Office (see No. 385, note II). Shone then
forwarded the minutes to Sir A. Carter on 22 August
and explained: ‘I am grateful to His Excellency for
sending me this paper, but I am sure you will agree that
its contents and the fact that it has been communicated
to me and by me to you, should be treated with the
utmost secrecy.’ L/P&J/10/117: ff 18 and 17.
See Appendices to No. 488.
A Photostat of this map may be found in an envelope
at the back of L/P&J/10/117. Sir C. Radcliffe signed the
map in the following manner: ‘Attached to my Report
d. 12 August 1947 for reference Cyril Radcliffe.
Chairman, Punjab Boundary commission.’
The Reports by the Members of the Bengal Boundary
Commission may be consulted at the I.O.L.R. on a
microfilm of Partition Proceedings supplied by the
National Documentation Centre, Pakistan. IOR Pos. 3658.
The Reports by the Members of the Bengal Boundary
Commission relating to Sylhet District and the adjoining
-districts of Assam may be consulted at the I.0.L.R. on
a microfilm of Partition Proceedings supplied by the
national Documentation Centre, Pakistan. IOR Pos.
3658.
See above, note 20.
Not printed. For the awards of the Boundary
Commission, see Appendices to No. 488.
See Nos. 367, 378, 405, 427 and 441.
cf. No. 326.
Reproduced here as appendix I.
Vol. XI, No. 128.
See Ibid., No. 175, item 2.
Ibid., No. 158.
Ibid., No. 311, para. 2. |
Ibid., No. 369, para. 11 and its note 10.
No. 52, Case No. P.C. 30/4/47.
142
53.
54.
55.
o6.
57.
58.
og.
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
. Ibid., Case No. 26/4/47.
. See No. 164
. See No. 224.
. No. 428.
. See No. 389, Item I and its note 3.
. See No. 436 and its note 2.
. See No. 454 and its note 2.
. Not printed; see No. 452.
. See Nos. 446 and 453.
7. Emphasis in original.
. No. 335.
. See No. 271, note 10.
. See No. 191,
. Not printed.
. The Minutes of the Viceroy’s Fiftieth Staff Meeting
record that: ‘There was discussion on the Chittagong
Hill Tracts, and His Excellency indicated the outline of
a note which he wished to be preprared on this subject’
- and that the Viceroy ‘directed Con. Sec. to draft a note
on the Chittagong Hill Tracts, for discussion, if
necessary, with the Indian Leaders the following day’.
Mountbatten Papers.
Nos. 363 and 364.
Vol. X, No. 464, para. 8.
No. 450.
Vol. VII, No. 303°.
Not printed.
Emphasis throughout in original.
Mr. Christie noted on 14 August : ‘Pandit Nehru Agrees’
R/3/1/157 : £282.
3
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life
(A Variety of Sheer Richness of Buddhism)
Hirodotus father of Historians writes:
The Scythian (nomadic race), were one of the earliest
tribes in the Central Asia, those who moved in the west are
known to be fairer Aryans, and those who moved in the far
oriented became known as the great yellow race — the
semantic of the word Sakyan. The Aryans are seen as a
separate cultural group, but not as a distinct race. The
earliest human beings were rather ignorant, imaginary and
justifying everything by fate, act of God (God's will), treating
animals and abstract things as God. The Hindus are
anthropomorphic race. The Hindu philosophy is mainly
dealing with the identity of Brahman (the highest caste,
social group of Hindus, who traditionally become priest in
the Hindu religion), and Atma (Soul), which is the central —
thought of linking them with God (Supreme soul) an
imagery idea. This religious conviction is based on ‘theism,’
the belief that there is only one God, who is completely
separate from those things (the earth, people etc.), he has
created rather than being part of them. As the principle of
all religions, except Jainism and Buddhism, has the God as
the creator, preserve and destroyer. Aphoristically, religion
in two ways: God indicated dignity (elevation of mind) and
the other rationalism (endowed with reason, logic) against
prejudice. The theory that only the self exists or proven to
exist is termed Solipsism (Philos), univocal in Buddhism.
Dukkha (Suffering). Trishna (craving), Nirodh (fend off) and
Restrain (8 fold path).
144 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Sila : Right view, Right thinking, Right speech, Right
activity, Right livelihood, Right diligence.
Samadhi: Right mindfulness
Right meditation
Wisdom : Perfect knowledge of truth.
Buddha’s enlightenment steered as under :
Ist period 6 — 10 p.m. = recalling past lives
2nd period 10 — 2 a.m. = Analysis of Karma
3rd period 2 — 6 a.m. = Dharma four noble truth,
(Dependent Originations)
Now, what is Dukkha (vedana); it rises by eye contact,
ear contect nose contect, tongue contact body contact, mind
contact respectively. Similarly, Trishna has links of
dependent origination.
Samskara, Vijnana, namarupa, sparsha, vedana,
trishna, upadana, Bhava, jati, jaramarana, Aridya. A
pictorial provider of all as below :
Skandha Circle (How we see the world : objective outer
experience only subjective inner experience).
Sparsha invested contact
Objective Subjective
Maneskara ‘\, Vedana
Invested attention
Selective viewing |
motivated by self interést How we react
How we sapoech to the world
the world a
7:
a «>
o*
_ o 3
car” che é
Ce FN, Samjna
Mental
Constructs
Behaviour pattern
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 145
Sparsha prasping of sense
“ Six senses ©
light, hearing, touch
smell, taste, imagination
Subjective
0M
Manskara
Vedana
Manas the controller
of mental activity
Chetana
Samjana
Samskara
Aloy the
mind store
No : The five omnipresent factors related to Skaridha
process.
There are 12 links of dependent origination:
. Avidya pratyaya, sanskara
. Sanskara pratyaya, Vijnana
. Vijnama pratyya, namarupa
_ Nama rupa pratyaya, Shadayatana
. Sadayatana pratyaya, Sparsha
. Sparsha pratyaya, Vedana
. Vedana pratyaya, trishna
. Trishna pratyaya, upadana
. Upadana pratyaya, Bhava
tt
=
. Bhava pratyaya, jati
—
. Jati pratyaya, jaramarana
12. Jaramarana pratyaya, Avidya
According to some study in Buddhism basically besides
four noble truths there has been dependent origination
impermanance etc. in the courses of Buddha Gautama. It
was retrieved by Nagarjuna (C1CE) from the Nagas
146 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
(mythical serpent like being who had been entrusted to
preserve the most profound of Buddha’s teaching until the
prophelization of Nagarjuna. The next was the great master
Asanga (300-390 CE) which advocated the mind only—
Yogachara. There has been many denominations in the
present worldlike the veins of a leaf. The belief that only
one’s experience and existence can be known with absolute
certainty. This is vasically the doctrine of Hinayana
(Therovada) Buddhism. In some respect, the Mahayana
form of Buddhism arose in contrast to it, and this is specially
clear in its concept of the insight which gives rise to
liberation in times and space in the cosmos. Meditation is
basically solipsism leading to personal development
(Nirvana); Ni-Ban ie Ni or Nil+tie (no attachment or desire).
This is the fundamental concept of Paticca Samuppada of
Therovada Buddhism. While in Mahayana Buddhism it is
of Dependent Arising and Sunyata. Because the original!
nature (E) in the phenomena of Dependent Arising is
emptiness, therefore (IE) can arise in different phenomenal
forms depending on different causes or conditions. The ideal
Buddhist way of acquisition of knowledge of holism and
deriving knowledge as co-reclusion from something already
known with the act of deductive reasoning, inductive
knowledge: A typical form is “All Ais C; All B is A; therefore
All B is C”. Thus, is the dissimilarities with the conventional
religion. They cling to “Act of God, God's will! Law of God!
Buddha’s word of freedom of thought : do not believe
anything because it is believed by parents, teachers learned
men of high rank or by the public or because it is thought
to be given by divine inspiration or by on aracle, or because
it is handed down by tradition, or because it is found in book
or because some one proclaims it to be true, but believe
anything if it agrees with reasons, investigation and
experienced knowledge. But, Gautama Buddha propagated
the Law of Nature and one can make 7 up by the
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 147
acquisition of knowledge. The meaning of Buddha means
awakened. In Buddhism the power of knowledge (ability,
capacity, potentiality) called ‘iddhi’ six kind of spiritual
powers : 1. Determination, 2. Transformation, 3. Spritual
Creation, 4. Penetrating knowledge, 5. Power of penetrating
concentration, 6. Noble power (Ariya iddhi) iddhi to be
cultivated on discursiveness. To be going on Buddhist way
of life, one should maintain purity and is supposed to live
on surfeit (no excess or over fullness) open and clear.
Buddhism is enshrined in the cultural paradigm of Chakmas.
Bhikkhus on the whole maintain asceticism and their
sanctity for sanctimonious utterances enshrined in their
traditional culture. It gives joy to the family as they accept
it with alacrity and religiosity. Chakmas Buddhist persuasion
has remained in unperfidiousness albeit Gagon the dream
they use to refer Gautama Buddha supreme truth.
Mahavagga Pitaka how the Buddha attained supreme
enlightenment, how be discovered the famous law of
Dependent origination how he gave his first sermon on the
noble truths (Dhammacakkappa vandama sulta) and later
the discourse on non-self (Anatta Lokahana-Satta).
Observing the rains retreat (varsa) and Kathina Chibar
Dana Ceremony were annual making and offering of robes
takes place. It is implicitly clear that the Chakma Buddhist
religion is one of those traditional systems from the very
ancient times (Buddhist life). Like the Kathina Chibara
Dana, according to Vinaya Sutta how the Buddha attained
supreme enlightenment the famous law of dependent
origination, how he gave his first sermon on four noble
truth (dhamma cakkappa vandona sutta) and later the
discourse on non-self (Anatta Lokhana Sutta). Observing
the rain retreans (Vassa) Kathina ceremony were annual
making and offering of robes take place in Therovada
Buddhism. There life is undergoing a great evolution
through the ages — as Spencer, a great thinkers says: “Life
is an evolution, it is continuous adjustment of interrelations —
148 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
to external relations.” The present perennial value of
Buddhism is in world Buddhism which advocated Buddhist
activities more unitedly through the ideology get more
clarified in a credible way through wisdom and knowledge.
The mind (cause), the matter (effect) and the unity of both,
that reflects in Buddhism. Gautama Buddha spoke in this
verse :
“Wealth and destiny come from one’s destiny.
From causes planted in lives in the past.
People who hold to this simple principle
will reap good fortune in lives in the future.
Kind men and women, listen to the causes
Hear and remember this Sutra’s reminder
of the causes and effects of karmic deeds
In the past, in the future, and in the present.
Cause and effects is no small case,
True are my (Buddha's) words; don't take them lightly,
Why are some people officials at present?”
Buddhist religion is the manifestation of the following :
1. They are the producer of highest number of
Bhikkhus (Monks);
2. They are not confined to Therovada Buddhism alone,
and many have ardent faith in Mahayanaism and
pursuing practices there.
There are images of Buddha in every household. The
most customary worshipping place for them is on a machan
(raised from the ground) in front of their dwelling house. It
is a solitary place. They are aiming to achieve individual
attainment Araht i.e. no suffering in this life itself:
Therovada Buddhism, while Mahayanist the aim of life is
for benefiting all living creatures. At one time the Chakmas
were adhering to Tara originated in India it became very
popular in 7th Century Zara which means goddess saviour.
In China Tibet it is the manifestation of the wisdom,
compassion, love and in particular the skillful activity of all
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 149
enlightened beings. Tara means Shakti (perfect knowledge,
heart Sutta in Mahayana, Prajna Paramita). According to
Tibetian doctrine Kalachakra Tantra King Suchandra of the
north eastern India kingdom Shamhala requested teaching
from the Buddha that would allow him to practice the
Dhamma without renouncing his wordly enjoyment and
responsibilities. In response to his request the Buddha
taught the first Kalachakra root Tantra in Dhanyakataka
present day Amaravai in Andhra Pradesh South India. The
Mahayana Buddhism which branched off at the time of
Asoka (C 250 BC) had long remained popular in Mayanmar
before the rise of Pagan (mid 9th century). The renowned
Buddhist monk scholar, Dipankara Srijana Atisa (920-1054
AD) who is supposed to have spent twelve years in
“Suvarnabhumi” (South of Myanmar) before going to Tibet
to reform the Tantric tradition there. The ‘Ari’-ism
(corrupted form of Buddhsim, medley of Tantric and
Therovada) ended in Myanmar and became fully influenced
by Therovada in the middle of 18th century and swamed
over Chittagong Hill Tracts. Hence, the ideal of an altruistic
enlightened man who caringly resolves. May the fruits
austerities and meditations alleviate sufferings of all sentient
creatures, even moment of giving birth. The universe is
holistic and secular, Sabbe Satta Sukhito hontu.
Owing to the differences on the death of Sakyamuni
among the monks in the Ist council itself, they were divided.
In the 2nd Council at Vaisali (about 300 B.C.) they split into
two camps. Therovadin and Mahasanghikas (Mahayana).
They together are called Sarvas tirading (dialectical
materialism mind and matter are independent mind is
evolution process and matter is a form of energy. There are
many denominations of Buddhism like the vein of a leaf In
the moden world many people practice varying degrees of
Buddhism and liturgy exists in wider variety of subjective
manner at the back, but the prime objective of personal
improvement of enlightenment as shown by Gautam
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
150
Buddha. Coming next Buddha gave five precepts for one
week to his followers which is the origin of Therovadins,
while in the second phase it is represented by the
Avatamsaka Sutra first which Buddha delivered for 21 days
to convert all those with Bodhis all (future Buddha)
potential. So that the eyes of Mahayana Bodhisattvas as
would open to the view and awareness of Buddhas. Buddha
continued the Avatamsaka for twenty one days to convert
all those with Bodhisatta potential. There monks can not eat
together with lay persons, but not in Mahayana.
Therovadin Vinaya there are 227 rules for the Bhikkhus
and 311 for the Vhikhhunis. For Bhikkhus in China, the
few Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis in japan and those in Korea
and Vietnam follow Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, which has 250
rules for the Bhikkhus and 348 for the Bhikkhunis. Buddhist
in Tibet and Mongolia follow Mulasarvastivada Vinaya
which has 253 rules for Bhikkhus and 364 rules for
Bhikkhunis. There are many supplimentary rules. They
believe in ‘Tantric’ enlightenment through one’s own body
(Tantra-means a sexuality between male and female monks
like brother and siter in the priory sacred union of opposite
energies—Mandala, achieved between men and God in
Moksha or Nirvana. In true sense, after achieving Moksha
one would still remain in the terristerial world or might
return, but in Nirvan there is no return.
Satipattana Buddhism Theology of Chakmas
The Chakmas adhere to Satipattana Buddhist theology
(Deep Philosophy) and the ardent believer of the 10 (ten)
fetters (tie) in the doctrine of Buddhism which are as follows:
Satipattana wisdom has six stages. 1. Anapana breathing,
2. standing (walking meditation), 3. remain watchful and
aware, 4. knowledge of holy and unholy sanctity, 5.
realisation of five elements (four natural Air, Heat, Water
and Earth+Body), 6. Grandeur way of analysing of dead
body.
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 15
The 10 fetters:
1. The delusions (ignorance) of Selfhood.
2. Doubt (Don’t belief and accept till you agree with
analysis and evidence).
3. Belief in the efficiency (effectiveness) of ritual
observation for deliverance.
4, Sensual craving/Sentience feeling.
5. Ill will (mental power, intention’s).
6. Craving for from existence.
7. Craving formless existence.
8. Conceit (pride)
9. Restlessness
10. Ignorance.
The five elements of human body, eye, ear, nose, tongue
and touch which operate with mind (intellectual power/
science) graded at different levels, which is subject of
development/purification. The self-purification on these,
cannot be reborn lower than human in the wheel of life.
- Their aim is to destroy these fetters. Their religious faith is
beholden to their community and Nirvana means supreme
tranquility and does not mean destruction of existence. The
Chakma social entities (Stratum) is purely on religious ritual
and practices which has undergone variant, changes in the
ages in different Buddhist practices.
Robe Offering Ceremony
One of their oldest religious practices 1s known to be
Kathina Chibra Dan (Robe offering Ceremony, according to
Vinaya Sutta in Therovada Buddhism. It is the solemn
invocation of divine blessings of Buddha and it invokes his
divine memory traditionally Buddha’s garments consist of
four parts :
1. Antarvasa (A transparent piece of cloth below the wrist).
2. Uttarasanga (A yellow brown robe).
152 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
3. Sanghati (Scapular covering shoulders)
4. Kathinabhandi (belt).
It is celebrated one month after the rain, which lasts for
three months to offer robe to those monks, who had observed
Varsha vash (at a fixed place) not in wandering anc
preaching, but in meditation and giving instruction to his
disciples. The Buddhist monks accordingly follow his
examples and live in°a monastery giving religious
instruction to the people. Incantation is the monk's pre-
occupation which is believed to have magical effect. It is
called kathina Chibara Dan as it is hard to complete entire
processing of spinning of the raw cotton, making and dving
of the fibres, weaving of cloth on handlooms and complet ing
the Chibar (Robe) in 24 hours which is still alive in Chakina
religion festivals. That is why there is a difference between
ordinary Chibar offering and the Kathina Chibar offering.
It is interesting to know that it becomes the main concern
of women to partake in its preparation. In the Buddha’s
time, out of loyalty and faithfulness the Sakyan issued a
decree that each family should provide one son to the centre
of Buddhas Sangha. It is being followed upon in Sakyan
which is most shining saving characteristics of Chakmas. It
continues among all his followers since then — as a proof of
their intangible faith in Buddhism.
Shiv Saran Chakma
It is the last dot of Buddhism that survived in the
erstwhile eastern Bengal over thousand years ago, whose
written record in Buddhist texture was dominantly found
in the Chakma society composed by Shivsaran Chakma a
poet composer whose biodata is as under: Father’s name-
Dhongi Birth Place — Village — Batoli on the Bank of River
Karnaphuli near Kaptai. His classic contributions writings
are called Gogen Lama, Genghuli Yog Alam and Fakira Alam
that relates to Tantric Buddhism. Lakshi in Mahayana is
transformation in human life (Seat of consciousness, where
as in Hinduism, Laxmi is the goddess of prosperity). There
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 153
is some mystic element in it. In the midst of life wherever
unhappiness arises it was the customery to the Chakmas to
make Lakshi pala which is performed by pious spirituality
who will invite holi spirit by Gengkhuli—descending
autometically from mouth all through the night. He made
Buddhism more profounder with more devotional recitative
songs in the culture life of Chakma. This is most precious
works of a cleric that crystallises with a vision. Their
preconceived notion ideas that they are the torchbearers of
Buddhism. Lakshi in Mahayana is transformation in human
life (seat of consciousness, where as in Hinduism, Laxmi is
the goddess of prosperity). There is some mystic element in
it. In the midst of life whenever unhappneess and sex it was
the customery to the chakmas to make Lakshi pala which
is performed by pious spirituality who will invite holi spirit
by Gengkhuli—descending automatically from mouth all
through the night. In the present era, most primate Bana
Vante, the forest monk in the Chittagong Hill Tracts,
Bangladesh (dwell on prive retreat) when people believe to
have attained pretarnatural powers. There is a general
acceptance of his pieties providence. It is so obviously seen
on him. The psychological sping off the phenomenon is
tremendous — the entire Chakma Community in many
countries feels elevated. As a monk he believes (trust) in
divine providence that he would receive any offering, if it
is offered to him even if it is from far distance, because of
his psychic “Iddhi” power. An edification after meeting him,
because of his attainment of Arahathood highest stage of
holiness in Therovada before Nirvana, whose physical
sensation (Consciousness ceses and mind remains
concentrated on subject moditating). He has been in the
puritan streak line as Sramana receiving premptory
instructions of his senior as a naive monk since the full-
moon day (Bengal month Phalgun, March 1949) in the
monastry Nandan Kanan, Chittagong under Mahastavir
Dipankar. After being ordained to full Bhikkuhood he
154 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
became known by the name Sadhana Nanda Mahastavir
since 1970 in Dighinala monastry in CHT. From 1976 he
has been living in the Raj bana Vihar at Rangamati in
Bangladesh and great edification has been taking place in
his prediency, as he is the product of great religious ecstacy
in this region. He has become the religious icon for the
community, as they have had spiritual and deeper
communion on religious belief by his teaching.
Chakma Buddhist Organizations
Besides this there are many notable Chakma Buddhist
organizations to speed up their progress to being with their
life over again when lifes tenor is going on other ways,
namely :
1. Monoghar in CHT. Contact information P.O. - Dt.
Rangamati, Bangladesh.
2. Sishu Karuna Sangha Motri Nagar in Kolkata,
Contact information P.O. Rajarhat Hatiara West
Bengal.
3. Chakma Buddhist foundation in Bodh Gaya, Contact
information Buddhagaya Bihar, India.
4. Sneha in Arunachal Pradesh, Contact information
P.O. Diyun Dt. Changlang.
5. The Ashok Buddha Vihar, New Delhi, Contact
information Rajghat, New Delhi.
6. Peace Campaign Group in New Delhi, Contact
information RZ-1-71/211 West Sagarpur.
7. Mahabodhi Society Bangalore contact information
14 Kalidasa Road, Gandhi Nagar.
8. Parbatya Buddha Mission contact information PO &
Dist. Khagarachari, CHT, Bangladesh.
9, Rangamati Parbatya Buddha Moitree Sangha P.O.
Rangamoti (behind Food Godown), CHT,
Bangladesh.
Many other similar organizations are present in different
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 155
states in India and abroad. The success of these
organizations was greater than one could have hoped. Many
luminaries of them are now already wide spread around the
globe. It is amazing how they progressed with their own
endeavour. It is revealing something of sheer richness of
Buddhism.
It is heralding of a new era of Buddhism. According to
Buddhist cosmology, there are three worlds viz the Kamaloka
(the world of Sensuous experience); The
Rupalaka (the world of subtle form), and the Arupaloka the
world without subtle form. These realms correspond
to the level of consciousness that cam be attained in
meditation.
Epigram:
“Science without religion is lame,
Religion without science is Blind.”
—Albert Einstein
References
Hiouen—Tsang’s report.
Avtamsaka Sutta, p. 148.
The smaller Sukhavati—Vyuha Sutta, p. 161.
The ways of enlightenment, p. 172.
History of Buddhist Chronology, p. 180.
Buddha canonical literature.
Ath Veh YT
IMPORTANT RACIAL AND LINGUISTIC
REFERENCES
Imperial Gazetteer of India—WW Hunter (1885)
Chapter: Burma British (page — 183, 449)
“It is probable that the lower part of the valley of the
Ganges was formerly occupied by people speaking languages
of the class sometimes called Mramma before the advents
of the Aryans, but as regards the Burmese, it seems more
j
156 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
natural to believe, as Sir Arthur Phayre writes, that they
passed from the tableland of Central Asia round the eastern
Himalayas. A kingdom was formed at Tagaung; and thence,
it is said, a portion of the people went westwards into Arakan,
while the remainder moving southwards, founded fresh
kingdoms in Prome and Tounggu, where the Burmese
language is still supposed to be spoken in greater purity
than elsewhere in Burma.
The hill tribes of Arakan who live near the Kuladan river
and its tributaries, namely the Sak, Chaw, Kwaymi, Kuo,
Mro and Sandhu belong by Burmese, and their language
belongs to what is sometimes called Tibets Burman family.
Linguistic References
Kadu of south Central Yunnan (now known in the
Chinese literature as Kaduo) is now classified as one of the
severities of Hani. What is the history of Kadu people, from
where they had derived? Do they have any progenitory
history? Can it be possible to identify them distinctly? Which
are the places of their concentration in Yunnan? What is
their racial history?
Characteristics of Mon (Burma) and Pollard Seripts
Some Anthropologists patch them with the Chakmas as
lost tribe. Their language resembles to that of the Saks or
Thets.
History of Chakma Buddhist
THE UNSWERVING ETHNIC TRIBAL BUDDHISTS.
(This was written for Living Buddhism the Amida
Trust Journal of April, 2000) By Sakya Talukdar
Introduction
There are few loyalists of Buddhism in the main land of
India. Uptill 1947, the Chittagong Hill Tracts was a part of
greater Bengal in India. “On 15 August 1947, the Indian
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 157
tricolour went up a flag post in Rangamati, the main town
in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The Chakma leaders had
believed during the tortuous negotiations leading up to
partition that, given the religious composition of the
largely Buddhist CHT, their district would be parcelled out
to India.”
The CHT with 2,75,000 people out of which 98 per cent
ethnic Buddhists was awarded to (east) Pakistan arbitrarily
against the partition axiom of India by the Radcliff
Commission. The Buddhist religion was given away — to
satisfy the Hindus and Muslims. The long and the short of
it, they all plotted treason and from thenceforth the days of
travail had begun for Tribal Buddhists.
Historical Background
The ethnic tribal Buddhists are the earliest settlers of
CHT which geographically is at the tail end of Arakan Yoma
(in Myanmar) an extensive stretch of mountainous country
arising from the Himalayan Mountain ranges at the foot
hills of which Kapilavastu (Sakya Kingdom) had once come
up into great prominence at the time of Buddha. According
to conceivable history the Sakyas came to racial
encountering and massacre which resulted uprooting of
Sakyas from Kapilavastu. When the Chinese pilgrim Fa
Hien visited Kapilavastu in 435 AD the country around
looked deserted and there were heaps of ruins. This was the
break on the wheel of Sakya prominence.
Sakyas were diverged into many groups, sub-groups,
branches etc. with the passing of the ages, years. Many of
them must have lost their tracks or co-mingled with others
in the long run. But yet many preserved Buddhism and
Buddhist culture. CHT was considered as the Buddhist
preserve by the distinctive group of Tribal people, who refer
their ancestry from Sakya clan and their chiefs consider
themselves from the Sakya rulers. The majority of the tribal
people are known by the term Chakmas (in English) and
158 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
the word is spolt as Tsakma (in Burmese). There are many
offshoots of this terminology of ethnic people who are in
river and mountain valleys of Irrawadi (in Mayanmar)
Brahmaputra (India).
To be going on with Buddhism was most difficult in
India as it opposed the Brahman ceremonial and caste
pretensions (which is still alive) and preached non-
sectarianism and racialism. After Buddha’s death Buddhism
and its psyche got broken down. People began to disavow
Buddhism. But there were some pertinacious Buddhists in
the smaller places and tribal republics in India. The final
crusade came by the Mohammedan invasion which began
in the year 1001 AD that destroyed and massacred all
Buddhist precinct, learning centres, monks and finally
Buddhist tenets. Buddhist people had undergone a change
and not a single Buddhist was left over in the mainland of
India. In this background, CHT remained the Buddhist
preserve, where the earnest pertinacious Buddhist found it
to be their safe sanctuary. “Buddhism is a living religion in
Chittagong proper, in the Hill Tracts, and in Tripura. It was
introducted in these district about the ninth century AD
direct from Magadha.” The Mahayana Buddhist Tradition
which about that time prevailed in Magadha became
completely extinct and forgotten in the mainland India, but
it was blooming in CHT and got resonance for the ethnic
tribal Buddhists upto to-day. There are Buddhist tenets as
‘Agartara’ (personification of Nirvana) among them which
is similar as ‘Arya Tara’ who identified with Sakti or the
female principle. In Tibet she is called Yum-Chenmo, the
great mother, in Nepal she is personified as Prajna Paramita
or transcendental Wisdom.
Cut under British Rule
There is not much of allusion of CHT before 1763 (the
British took over the control of Chittagong from Mughals
in 1760). It was fer the first time the Chakma Chief’s area
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 159
(the head of Buddhist ethnic tribe) was drawn out as “All
the hills from Pheni river to the Sangoo and from Nizampur
road in Chittagong to the hills of the Kuki Raja”, who were
in the distant hills (unsurveyed areas) at the animism stage.
They began murderous attacks on the British subjects in
Assam, Tripura and CHT. It became most vital to the British
Government to protect its subjects from the great Kuki
invasions in 1847, 1848, 1859 and 1860. The British
Government had a real gloom when a six years British girl
of a tea planter was taken captive (from Alexanderpore in
Cachar, Assam) by the savage tribes. The British
Government had to take up with administration, to
penetrate till the last outpost in British rule. An act on CHT
was framed in 1860 and the Chakma chief was asked to shift
his headquarters to Rangamati inside CHT. In 1866, Capt.
T.H. Lewin was posted as the superintendent of the District
and in 1867 the official cesignation was changed from
‘Superintendent of the Hill Tracts’ to the ‘Deputy
Commissioner of the tracts’. The ethnic tribal Buddhists were
in great peace and fulfilling happiness. They could get on
with their simple life and local forest conservation could meet
all their demands. They had a most natural life, enough of
everything. They practiced a great deal Buddhism in their
social life, they are quoted “I had often heard of the vicious
excess and drunken debauchery of the savage races for
ought I know this may be the case of the coast of Africa or
New Guineas; but here in the Hill Tracts, through out the
three days’ Carnival, I have not seen any one drunken man
nor witnessed any discourtesy to a woman. They seemed an
honest kindly people, happy in their homes and in their
simple Buddhist faith and I doubt much if they had
anything to gain from the introduction of European ideas.
The Lushais and Sindhus were made of different stuff and
need very different dealing with”’.
The British administration understood that the CHT Act —
of 1860, was needed to be amended as it had not given
160 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
adequate safeguard to the ethnic tribal from powerful races.
Finally in 1900 a new regulation on CHT was introduced
under which migration in the CHT was prohibited and the
tribals were entrusted with limited Self Government
through their Chiefs.
CHT Under Pakistan
“As a part of Pakistan, the CHT lost its special status
and autonomy under an amendment to the Pakistan
constitution in 1963. Pressure for land to cultivate had in
the past led to the migration of large number of non-tribal
people from other parts of Bangladesh into the CHT. This
process was actively encouraged by Governments since the
1960’s"*. Lest CHT should go to India, the Pakistan
Government was bent to change to demographic position by
immigrating Bengali Muslims and also made an outrageous
scheme by setting up of a hydroelectric project on the river
Karnaphuli to uproot and displace the ethnic tribals.
“The origin of the problem in the CHT is believed to be
the completion of a dam at Kaptai near Rangamati between
1957 and 1963 when the area was administered by
Pakistan. At least 54,000 acres of settled cultivable land,
mostly farmed by the Chakma Tribes were lost in 1957 when
the Government began the Construction of the Karnaphuli
hydroelectric project. Over 400 square miles of land were
submerged with far-reaching effects on the economic life
style of the tribal people there. Some 100,000 people lost their
homes and prime agricultural lands. Compensation for lost
land was inadequate and over 40,000 Chakma tribal crossed
the border into India where the majority have sought Indian
citizenship’ 5. They are still stateless. At least 20,000 more
left for the Arakan hills in Myanmar where they are now
settled.
CHT Under Bangladesh
The political expediency of Pakistan gave birth of
Bangladesh in 1971. The pressure of Bengali Muslim
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 161
immigration had undoubtedly fueled xenophobia among the ~
ethnic tribals. They decided to remain in peace and neutral
during the bad days of the Bangladesh liberation movement.
Therefore, the sore point of the Bengali Muslims became
more hardened against the Tribal Buddhist after the
liberation of Bangladesh as Bengalis looked upon the tribals
as pro-Pakistanis. A large blood let was perpetrated in CHT
by the Muslim Bengalis in the name of liberation. The ethnic
Buddhist had no place to keep them on their guards as the
Bangladesh Government (at that time) was against them.
The Buddhist leaders then demanded for the constitutional
safe-guards, but it was rejected outright (it is said that the
President of Bangladesh angrily threatened to drown the
ethnic people in a flood of people from plains). Since the
the ethnic Buddhist leader felt parting with their ways |
peaceful dialogue with the Bangladesh Government a.
formed and underground armed wing ‘Shanti Bahini’ (peace
force) in January 1973. The dispute with Government
began smoldering, but the violent army operation in the CHT
began in March 1980 onwards. More than 8500 rank and
files of ‘Shanti Bahini’ were killed.
Prior to the creation of Bangladesh in 1971, the
population in CHT were almost entirely of indigenous tribes
(13 different groups). The phenomenal population increase
in CHT as recorded in the census (1981) is Tribal population
(4,39,458) while Bengali total population (2,68,998), but in
the next census (1991) the Tribal total population remained
(4.98,595) while Bengali population increased to (4,68,825);
the ratio of Tribal and non-tribal being 51:49, The home land
of ethnic Buddhist Tribals became the living space of the
Bengali Muslim. In fact they have already been out-
numbered by new settlers (Muslim immigrants) in many
areas. The Government was bringing economic growth and
large benefits to them while tribals were systematically
burdened and finally uprooted. During the years 1981-1994
the blood lust situation in CHT became a great concern to
162 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
many humane Government of the world. Because of their
insistence finally on 2 December 1997, an agreement
generally known as ‘Peace Accord’ was signed between
National Committee on CHT and the Parbatta Chattagram
Jana Sanghati Samiti (the political wing of Shanti Bahini)
in the presence of the Prime Minister of Bangladesh. The
insurgency violence had continued for almost 20 years. This
resulted fleeing of many ethnic tribals (60,000) to Tripura.
After the peace treaty the refugees had returned to CHT,
but many of them had not yet been able to get back their
ancestral lands. Also the implementation of peace accord is
_ yet to get a start. The long and short of it, there has not
been any change as yet. The mind sets of tribals Buddhist
and Bengali Muslims are different.
The heading and the writing are two different. The
heading relates to p. 143 in Mizoram.
The writing to be transparred after the first para of page
142 (before A petal of Buddhism).
Rai Sarat Chandra. Its Bahadur, C.I.IL, a brother of
Babu Nabin Chandr Das has given the following account
of the history of Buddhism in Chittagong:—“Buddhism is a
living religion in Chittagong pruper, in the Hill Tracts, and
in Tippera. It was introduced in these districts about the
ninth century A.D. direct from Magadha, when the eastern
provinces of Bengal extending from Rangpur down to Ramu
(Romya Bhumu in Chittagong, were under the sway of a
Rajput prince named Gopipala. The Mahayana Buddhism,
which about that time prevailed in Magadha and Tibet, was
preached in Chittagong by Bengali Buddhists. In the 10th
century A.D. Chittagong, in a manner, became the centre
of the Buddhism of Bengal”. The chief feature of Mahayana
Buddhism is that the has taken in the entire Hindu
pantheon and added innumerable fancied deities to it. In
this enlarged pantheon the ruling deity is Arya Tara (a
personification of Nirrdna), who is dentified with Sakti or
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 163
the female principle. In Tibet she is called Yum-chenna, the
great mother; in Nepal the Eastern Bengal District
Gazetteers (1908) by L.S.S. O’Malley, Chittagong, p. 66. The
word Tara is commonly use in Barma and Assam indicating
consort of Buddha.
A Petal of Buddhism in Eastern Mountain Region in
India
In Assam : The geographical limit of CHT was bounded
with Kuki land (now Mizoram state, previously a part of
Assam); Pheni river which borders with Tripura State of
India and Sangoo river which borders with Arakan of
Myanmar. Till the British period people from all the
neighbouring areas gravitated into CHT as it was ideally
peaceful for living. The distance rebellious animist tribes
were overwhelmed by the British troops with the faithful
assistance of the Chakmas; whose area was originally a far
as Tuichong river, now forming a part in India, so they are
ipso facto, Indian origin. More than 32 per cent of the total
Chakmas of the world are living in India. It is mentioned
that “‘Tsakma’ Chittagong Hill Tracts are the ethnic people
of Brahmaputra valley. They do not have as much right to
the assets and opportunities strown around them as they
have not achieved any success in life. Their social ladder is
still on the ground.
In Arunachal Pradesh : Ground down by years (from
1963) of stateless condition, Chakma Buddhist Tribals
(80,000 population) are in grim face and reproving look in
Arunachal Pradesh. They are starved of their basic human
necessities like education, health care and right to public
assets whenever they highlight the demand of their
citizenship right, the powerful political groups start creating
troubles to them. Since their uprooting from their ancestral
land they are in sorry/dreadful plight.
In Mizoram : A portion of Mizoram state 1s the original
home land of the ethnic Buddhist tribal Chakmas. Ex-chief
164 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Labamoni Chakma of Lokisurj received compensation of the
government Assam. They find it hard to understand in the
present day why they have been out-played by the animist
(of a century back). In the last 100 years there was not much
to do here except impregnation of Christianity to the animist.
The number of Christian people (from zero at the beginning
of 20th century) phenomenally increased to 92 per cent
today and the remaining 8 per cent are pertinacious ethnic
Chakma Buddhists. |
In Tripura: The settlement of Tripuris in CHT and
Chakmas in Tripura vice-versa displayed a sign of fraternal
relationship between the two rulers from very ancient time.
The two were the adjacent states separated by the river
boundary Pheni. Therefore, Chakmas are the origins of
Tripura. Later political compulsions to escape the brunt of
torture resulted migration from CHT to Tripura. The
refugees who recently came had been sent back to CHT. The
ethnic Tribal Buddhists in Tripura are in a position to take
a decisive role in making the people aware of Buddhism.
So in the present day the ethnic tribal Buddhists are
wide spread swimming in different non Buddhist society. The
effect could be seen in their grinding poverty. Their centre
piece of life is Buddhism. It always dwells in their thought.
This has to be kept alive.
Assam is the heart of North East region of India
comprising of seven states 1.e. Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura — Seven Sisters.
This region is forged with multi races who were originally
Buddhists or Animist. Majority of them are now either Hindu
or Christian. The Buddhists are in marginal numbers in the
cities. The capital city Guwahati of Assam is a cosmopolitan
city and posed to be on the super international highway —
India’s main surface link route to the South- east Asian
countries within a decade. The ethnic Buddhist have
envisaged to build up a Buddhist precinct with a monastery,
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 165
an accommodation for pilgrims and a community centre on
the city Guwahati in Assam, India.
Buddhism Discouraged
During the ninth century, the Pal dynasty rose to power
in the country formerly known as Anga and gradually
extended their sway over the whole of Bihar and north
Bengal. Traces of their rule are very common in the south
of Dinajpur, where the memory of Mahipal, in particular, is
preserved both in the traditions of the people and in
numerous names of places. Like the kings of Pundra, they
were Buddhists, but they were tolerant towards Hinduism.
They were driven from Bengal proper, about the middle of
eleventh century, by a king named Vijaya Sen of the Sen
family, but they continued to rule for some time longer in
Bihar. The Sen rose to power in east and deltaic Bengal
towards the end of the tenth century, and eventually
included within their dominions the whole of Bengal proper
from the Mahananda and the Bhagirathi and the west to
the Karatoya and the old Brahmaputra on the east. The
Sens were Hindus, and during their rule Buddhism was
actively discouraged.
(Imperial Gazetteer of India Vol. VII, p. 210)
Vikramsila Monastery (University) was on the Ganges.
It was revealed post excavation work carried out at Antichak
just off to north Kahalgaon (Bhagalpur) now in Bihar. It
was an ancient university founded by Dharmapala, the Pala
king during the 8th century AD. It had been set up to
complement the dipping standard of Nalanda University.
Supposedly the place was marked in the 13th century
through its remnnts which offer a vibrant poop into the by
gone world of history. It had international fame. Some
Buddhist Luminaries of there monasteries including
Dipankara Srijana Atisa (980-1053 AD) head of Vikramsila
if Tee
166 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
establishment went to Tibet and preached Dharma which
has been translated into a thousand ways — religious merit,
righteousness, truth, nature etc.
Dhamma
Dhamma also refers to the natural and moral behaviour
appropriate to an individual or group of individuals to a
society as a whole. And Dharma to individual differs
according to their own nature physical cum morality — own
conscience. For a conscious being, to exist is to change to
change is to with the nature, to nature is to go on creating
self endlessly — Dhamma (Duty in conscieneeness).
It is well known that these are two editions of the council
books of Sakya Muni’s religion — one in Sanskrit, discoursed
by Hodgson in Nepalese monasteries; and the other in Pali
or Magadhi, in the possession of the Sinhalese priests. These
two collections, although written in somewhat different
language since Pali is the popular and Sanskrit the
cultivated and even sacred dialect. Thoroughly agrees as to
the substance.
Hiouen-Thsang
He knew of three councils—one that was held
immediately after the death of Sakya-muni; a second one
under Asoka and a third under Kaniskha, king of Kashmir,
on the first one he dwells at great length. According to
tradition, which he repeats, it was not far from Rajagriha,
two miles from the bamboo grove at Kalanta, in a large house
situated in the midst of another wood, that the Arahats of
the first Council assembled, Kasyapa, who had chosen
them—they numbered nine hundred and ninety-nine—
directed all the labours from which sprung the Tripitaka,
and he presided over the learned assembly. Hiouen-Thasang
shows him as exercising a kind of supervision, admitting
some, excluding others as unworthy, and only receiving
Ananda himself on the condition of his performing a long
penance. They had been in retreat for fifteen days, when
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 167
Kasyapa made Ananda take the chair, inviting him to read
the Sutra-Pitaka, or commentary on the Sutras. The
assembly, who respected the profound knowledge of Ananda,
which had been recognized by the Tathagata himself,
received the Sutras from his lips, and wrote them down
under his dictation. Then Kasyapa ordered Upali to read the
Vinaya-Pitaka, or Commentary on the Discipline; after
which he himself read the Abhidharma-Pitaka, or
Commentary on Metaphysics. At the end of three months
the work of the Council was finished. The writings of the
three Commentaries were collected; Kasyapa had them
transcribed on palm-leaves, and sent them out all over India.
As he had presided over the monks, his school was called
the School of the President (Sthavira-Nikaya).
Those, however, who had been excluded from the
Council by Kasyapa’s severity, assembled at a places near
there. They numbered several thousands, laymen as well
as monks, and, basing themselves on the principle of
equality that had always been inculcated by the Tathagata
among his disciples, they deemed themselves in a fit state
to make their own Collection of Sacred Writings. This they
composed of Five Commentaries, first the three first, then a
collection of miscellanies, and a collection of Magic Formulas.
This second school was called the School of the Great Council
(Maha-Samgha-Nikaya), and its partisans became
celebrated under the name of Mahasamghikas.
In Hiouen-Tsang’s memories it was written there were
eighty-eight thousand stupas from east to west from the
kingdom Tamralipta to the border of Sindh.
lst Buddhist Council immediately death of Sakyamuni,
2nd council under king Asoka, 3rd Council under Kanishka
king of Kashmir.
The Buddha and his religion —J. Barthelmy Saint
Hirairee London 1914.
168 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Buddha Canonical Literature
Historically, Mahayana school developed from its Indian
Buddhist root, but the basic source of writing material were
from Kashmir and Gandhara, Central Asia, Tibet and
China. Much of the Buddhist scholarly works has only
appeared in Mahayana producing sub-schools, as seen in
the canonical literature of Mahayana. Mahakasyapa
presided over first Buddhist council at Rajgraha soon after
there month of Sakyamuni’s Parinirvana. The very first
recitation of Mahakashyapa of the Buddha’s teaching were
not accepted by the Arahat Purana. He preferred to hold to
what he had himself from the lips of Sakyamuni. The second
council was held at Vaishali where there was dispute among
Arahats of accepting donations of money from laity. In the
third council there were two distinct bodies of opinion on the
subjects of Arahat’s behavior. The fourth council was held
at Gandhara (Kabul) during the reign of king Kushan
where developed sub-sect of Buddhism Zen (Dhyan) of
Mahayan School. In fact, leading to the dispute since very
early time a large body of Arahat (Sthavirs) made a
disaffected withdrawal to Kashmir and beyond and
thereafter called themselves Sarvastivadin (selfless) in the
school of Mahayana. Kashmir was a strong centre of
Buddhist learning in the ancient time. From here it passed
to central Asia and China. The earliest account of Buddhist
activity could be traced in the lst century AD proceeding to
china. This is the background of Buddhist canonical
literature. It is note- worthy the contribution of leading
Indian scholarly monks like Dipankara Srijana Atisa (AD
980-1053), who was the head of Vikramshila monastery to
Tibet. The two main division of Tibetan are Kanjur and
Tanjur. The first one included works esteemed as canonical
including Tantras which originated in Bihar. India and
Jogini Tantra in Assam in 5th AD. The second is composed
of exposition of scriptures and also of many treaties on
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 169
subjects as medicine, astronomy and grammer (Tantric
Buddhist Literature Lamaism Vijrayana). The Mahayanist
scholars were most notable for their creativity, such as those
of Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna, Atisa, Padmasambabha, Asanga,
Vasubandhu, Santideva and many others.
AVATAMSAKA SUTRA
(The Flower Garland Sutra)
{Practices and Vows of the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra}
Take a look at the commentary, Precious Garland
[The first part of this document is an excerpt from one
of the great Buddhist sutras (Book One Begins below)
Buddha Shakyamuni preached it in heaven shortly after his
attainment of Buddhahood. The sutra reveals different
causes and ways of cultivation of many great Bodhisattvas,
such as Ten Grades of Faith, Ten Stages of Wisdom, Ten
Activities, Ten Transference of Merits, Ten Stages of
Bodhisattvas, Absolute Universal Enlightenment, Wonderful
Enlightenment, etc. It also reveals how to enter Avatamsaka
World (Buddha’s world) from the Saha World. “The Flower
Adornment Sutra” — whose full title is the “Great Means
Expansive Buddha Flower Adornment Sutra’—is the longest
Sutra in Mahayana Buddhism. Referred to by Buddhist
scholars as “the King of Kings of Buddhist scripture” and
the “epitome of Buddhist Thought, Buddhist sentiment, and
Buddhist experience,” the Flower Adornmen. Sutra is 81 rolls
(bamboo scrolls) long and contains more than 700,000
Chinese characters.] At one time Samantabhadra addressed
the assembled, having praised the exalted merits and virtues
of Buddha Vairocana, the Bodhisattva Bodhisattvas, along
with Sudhana, as follows :
“Good men, even if all the Buddha’s of all the ten
directions were to speak continuously, for as many eons as
170 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
there are fine motes of dust in a incalculable number of
Buddha lands (worlds), the merits and virtues of the
Buddha could never be fully described.
“Those wishing to achieve these merits and virtues
should cultivate ten vast and great practices and vows. What
are these ten?
First, Pay homage and respect to all Buddha's,
Second, Praise all the Buddha's.
Third, make abundant offerings.
Fourth, Repent misdeeds and evil karma’s (actions).
Fifth, Rejoice in others’ merits and virtues.
Sixth, Request the Buddha’s to teach.
Seventh, Request the Buddha’s to remain in the world.
Eighth, Follow the teachings of the Buddha’s at all times.
Ninth, Accommodate and benefit all living beings.
Tenth, Transfer all merits and virtues universally.”
After explaining the significance of the first eight vows,
the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra continues :
Ninth Vow,
“Sudhana, to accommodate and benefit all living beings
is explained like this: throughout the oceans of worlds in the
ten directions exhausting the Dharma realm (cosmos) and
the realms of empty space there are many different kinds
of living beings. That is to say, there are those born from
eggs, the womb-born, the transformational born, as well as
those who live and rely on earth, water, fire and air for their
existence. There are beings dwelling in space, and those who
are born in and live in plants and trees. This includes all
the many species and races with their diverse bodies, shapes,
appearances, life spans, families, names, and natures. This
includes their many varieties of knowledge and views, their
various desires and pleasures, their thoughts and deeds, and
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 171
their many different behaviors, clothing and diets.
“It includes beings who dwell in different villages, towns,
cities and places, as well as gods, dragons, and others of the
eight divisions, humans and non-humans alike. There are
also footless beings, beings with two feet, four feet, and many
feet, with form and without form, with thought and not
entirely with thought and not entirely without thought.
“I will accord with and take care of all these many kinds
of beings, providing all manner of services and offerings for
them. I will treat them with the same respect I show my own
parents, teachers, elders, Arhats, and even the Buddha's. I
will serve them all equally without difference.
“I will be a good Physician for the sick and suffering. I
will lead those who have lost their way to the right road. I
will be a bright light for those in the dark night, and cause
the poor and destitute to uncover hidden treasures.
“The Boddhisattva impartially benefits all living beings
in this manner.
“Why is this? If a Bodhisattva accords with living beings,
then he accords with and makes offerings to all Buddha’s.
If he can honor and serve living beings then he honors and
serves the Buddha’s. If he makes living beings happy, he is
making all Buddha’s happy. Why is this? It is because all
Buddha’s take the mind of great compassion as their
substance. Because of living beings, they develop great
compassion. From great compassion the bodhi mind is born;
and because of the bodhi mind, they accomplish supreme,
perfect enlightenment (Buddhahood).
“It is like a great regal tree growing in the rocks and
sand of a barren wilderness. When the roots get water, the
branches, leaves, flowers, and fruits will all flourish. The
regal Bodhi-tree growing in the wilderness of birth and
death is the same. All living beings are its roots; all Buddha’s
and Bodhisattvas are its flowers and fruits. By benefiting
all beings with the water of great compassion, one can realize
172 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
the flowers and fruits of the Buddha’s and Bodhisattvas
wisdom. Why is this? It is because by benefiting living beings
with the water of great compassion, the Bodhisattvas can
achieve supreme perfect enlightenment; therefore, Bodhi
belongs to living beings. Without living beings, no
Bodhisattva could achieve supreme, perfect enlightenment.
“Good man, you should understand these principals in
this way : When the mind is impartial towards all living
beings, one can accomplish full and perfect great compassion.
By jsing the mind of great compassion to accord with living
beings, one perfects the offering of the Dharma to the
Buddha’s. In this way the Bodhisattva constantly accords
with living beings.
“Even when the realms of empty space are exhausted,
the realms of living beings are exhausted, the karma’s of
living beings are exhausted, I will still accord endlessly,
continuously, in thought after thought, without cease. My
body, speech and mind never weary of these deeds.
Tenth Vow
“Moreover, good man, to transfer all merits and virtues
universally is explained like this: all merits and virtues, from
the first vow, to pay homage and respect up to and including
the vow to accommodate and benefit all living beings
throughout the Dharma realm (cosmos) and to the limits of
empty space. I vow all living beings will be constantly happy
without sickness or suffering. I vow that no one will succeed
in doing any evil, but that all will quickly perfect their
cultivation of good karma. I vow to shut the door to evil
destinies and open the nght paths of humans, gods and that
of Nirvana. I will stand in for living beings and receive all
the extremely severe fruits of suffering which they bring
around with their evil karma. I will liberate all these beings
and ultimately bring them to accomplish unsurpassed Bodhi
(Buddhahood). The Bodhisattva cultivated transference’s in
this way.
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 173
“Even when the realms of empty space are exhausted,
the realms of living beings are exhausted, the karma’s of
living beings are exhausted, and the afflictions of living
beings are exhausted, I will transfer all merits and virtues
endlessly, continuously, in thought after thought without
cease. My body, speech and mind never weary of these
deeds.
“Good man, these are the ten great vows of the great
Bodhisattvas in their entirety. If all Bodhisattvas can follow
and abide by these great vows, then they will succeed in
bringing all living beings to maturity. They will be able to
accord with the path of the supreme, perfect enlightenment
and complete Samantabhadra’s sea of conduct and vows.
Therefore, good man, you should know the meaning of this...
“Further, when a person who recites these vows is on the
verge of death, at the last instant of life, when all his faculties
scatter and he departs from his relatives, when all power and
status are lost and nothing survives, when his “Prime
Minister, great officials, his inner court and outer cities, his
elephants, horses, carts, and treasures of precious jewels” can
no longer accompany him these great vows alone will stay
with him. At all times they will guide him forward, and in a
single instant he will be reborn in the land of ultimate bliss
arriving there, he will see Amitabha Buddha, The
Bodhisattvas Manjushri, Samantabhadra, Avalokiteshvara,
Maitreya, and others. The appearance of these Bodhisattvas
will be magnificent and their virtues and merits complete.
Together they will surround him.
“This person will see himself born from a lotus flower
and will receive a prediction of Buddhahood. Therefore, he
will pass through a incalculable number of eons and, with
his power of wisdom, he will accord with the minds of living
beings in order to benefit them everywhere, throughout the
countless worlds of the ten directions.
“Before long he will sit in front of the Bodhi-mandala
(place of enlightenment), subdue the demonic armies,
174 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
accomplish supreme, perfect enlightenment, and turn the
wonderful Dharma Wheel (Preach Buddhism). He will cause
living beings in worlds as numerous as the fine motes of dust
in Buddha lands to develop the Bodhi mind (Mind of
Enlightenment).
“According with their inclinations and basic natures, he
will teach, transform, and bring them to maturity.
“To the exhaustion of the oceans of future eons, he will
greatly benefit living beings...”
At that time the great Bodhisattva Samantabhadra,
wishing to restate his meaning, contemplated everywhere
in the directions and spoke in verse.
1. Before the Buddha's “Lions Among Men,”
Through out the worlds of the ten directions,
in the past, in the present, and also in the future,
With Body, Speech and Mind entirely pure,
I bow down before them all, omitting none.
With the awesome power of Samantabhadra’s Vows,
J appear at the same time before every Buddha,
And in transformed bodies as numerous as motes of
dust in all lands.
Bow to the Buddha’s as numerous as motes of dust
in all lands.
2. With oceans of sound I every where let fall
Words and phrases, wonderful and endless,
Which now and though all the eons of the future,
Praise the wide, deep sea of the Buddha’s Merits and
Virtues.
3. Flower garlands, supreme and wonderful,
Music, perfume, parasols, and canopies,
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 175
And other decorations rich and rare,
I offer to every Buddha.
Fine clothing, superior incense,
Powdered and burning incense, lamps and candles,
Each one heaped up as high as mount Sumeru,
I offer completely to all Buddha’s
With a vast, great, supremely liberated mind,
I believe in all Buddha’s of the three periods of time,
With the strength of Samantrabhadras conduct and
vows
I make offerings to all Buddha’s everywhere.
4. For all the evil deeds I have done in the past,
Created by my body, speech, and mind,
From beginning-less greed, anger, and delusion,
I now know shame and repent them all.
5. I rejoice in the merits and virtues,
of all beings in the ten directions,
from the most humble to the Arhats,
Pratyekabuddhas, Bodhisattvas and Buddha's.
6. Before the “Lights of the Worlds” of the ten directions,
Who have just accomplished supreme Bodhi,
I now request and beseech them all,
To turn the foremost, wondrous Dharma Wheel.
7. If there are Buddha’s who wish for Nirvana,
I request with deep sincerity,
That they dwell in the world for a long time,
To bring benefits and bliss to every being.
The good roots gained,
from following and rejoicing in merit and virtue
and from repentance and reform,
I transfer to living beings and the Buddha way.
176
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
8. I study with the Buddha’s and practice
the perfect conduct of Samantabhadra;
I make offerings to all the Buddha's of the past
and to all present Buddha's throughout the ten
directions
All future “Teachers of Gods and Men”
Whose aspirations and vows have been completed,
I will follow in study throughout the three periods
of time
And quickly attain the great Bodhi...
I vow that every being in all directions
Will be peaceful, happy, and without worry.
May they obtain the proper Dharmas profound aid,
And may their afflictions be wiped away,
Without exception.
In my practice striving for Buddhahood,
I will gain the knowledge of my past lives
In all destinies.
I will always leave the home-life and cultivate pure
precepts,
Without default, never broken, and without stain.
Be they Gods, Dragons, Yakshas, or Kumbhandas,
Humans, Non-humans, and the rest,
In the many languages of all such living beings,
With every sound I will speak the Dharma.
I will cultivate the pure paramitas with vigor,
and never abandon the Bodhi Mind.
I will banish all Obstructions and defilement’s,
And fulfill all wondrous practices.
From all delusions, karma’s, and demon states,
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 177
amid all worldly paths, I will be freed,
As the lotus does not touch the water,
As Sun and Moon do not stop in Space.
9. Ending the sufferings of the paths of evil,
And to everyone equally bringing joy,
May I for eons like the motes of dust
in all the lands
ever benefit all in the ten directions
Always in accord with living beings,
Cultivating through all future eons
The vast conduct of Samantrabhardra,
The unsurpassed Bodhi will I perfect.
I vow always to meet Buddha's face-to-face
And the hosts of disciples who gather around them;
I will raise offerings, which are vast and great,
Untiring to the end of future eons.
I will hold high the subtly wondrous Dharma
And illuminate all the practices of Bodhi;
I will be ultimately pure in Samantabhadra’s way,
Practicing until the end of time.
Inexhaustible blessings and wisdom,
I cultivate throughout all worlds;
By concentration, wisdom, skillful means, and
samadhis,
I will gain an endless store of merits and virtues.
In one mote of dust are lands as numerous as motes
of dust;
In each land are incalculable numbers of Buddha’s.
In every place where Buddha's dwell I see the host
assembled
178
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Endlessly proclaiming all the practices of Bodhi.
In ten directions everywhere, throughout the sea of
lands,
Every hair-tip encompasses oceans of past, present
and future.
So, too, there is a sea of Buddha's, a sea of Buddha
lands;
Pervading them all I cultivate for seas of endless
time.
The speech of all Buddha's is pure;
Each word contains an ocean of sounds.
According with what beings like to hear,
The Buddha’s’ seas of eloquent flows forth...
I can penetrate the future
And exhausting all eons in a single thought.
In a single thought I compress
All eons of the three periods of time.
In one thought I see all “Lions of Men”
Of the past, present, and future;
I constantly fathom the Buddha’s’ states,
Their magical samadhis and their awesome strength.
On the tip of an extremely fine hair,
Appears jeweled lands of past, present and future;
Lands on hair-tips as numerous as dust motes in all
lands of the ten directions,
I deeply enter, adorn, and purify...
The seas of lands I everywhere adorn and purify,
And I liberate all living beings, without exceptions.
With skill I make selections from among the seas of
Dharmas
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 179
And enter deeply into the wisdom sea...
Each Buddha has an elder disciple
Named Samantabhadra, Honored One.
I now transfer all good roots, and I vow
To perform deeds of wisdom identical to his.
I vow that my body, speech and mind will be forever
pure,
And that all practices and lands will be also.
I now in every way to be id .sttical
To the wisdom of Samantabhadra.
I will wholly purify Samantabhadra’s conduct,
And the great vows of Manjushri as well.
All their deeds I will fulfill, leaving nothing undone.
Till the end of time I will never tire.
Infinite and measureless is my cultivation;
Boundless merit and virtue I obtain.
Amid limitless practices I will dwell in peace,
And penetrate the strength of spiritual powers.
10. Manjushri has wisdom, courage and bravery;
Samantabhadra’s conduct and wisdom are the same.
I now transfer all good roots
In order to follow them in practice and in study...
In the three periods of time, all Buddha's praise
such vows as these, lofty and great.
I now transfer all good roots, wishing to perfect
The supreme practices of Samantabhadra
I now that when my life approaches its end,
all obstructions will be swept away;
I will see Amitabha Buddha,
180
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
And be born in his land of Ultimate Bliss and Peace.
When reborn in the western land,
I will perfect and completely fulfill,
without exception, these great vows,
To delight and benefit all beings.
The assembly of Amitabha Buddha is completely
pure;
When from a matchless lotus I am reborn,
I will behold the Buddha’s Measureless light as he
appears before me
To bestow a prediction of Buddhahood.
Receiving a prediction from the Buddha,
I will take countless appearances and forms,
and with wisdom power vast and great, pervade ten
directions to benefit all the realms of living beings.
Realms of worlds in empty space might reach an end,
And living beings, Karma’s and afflictions be
extinguished;
But they will never be exhausted,
and neither will my vows.
With myriad jewels in boundless lands in all
directions,
I make decorations and offerings to the Buddha’s,
For eons as numerous as the motes of dust in all
lands,
I bring the foremost peace to gods and humans.
Yet, if anyone believes in these great vows,
as they pass by the ears a single time,
And in search of Bodhi thirstily craves these vows,
The merits and virtues gained will surpass these
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life
181
offerings
With bad advisers forever left behind, |
From paths of evil he departs for eternity,
Soon to see the Buddha of limitless light
And perfect Samantabhadras supreme vows.
Easily obtaining the blessings of long life,
Assured of a noble rebirth in the human realm,
before long he will perfect and complete
the practices of Samantabhadra.
In the past, owing to a lack of wisdom power,
The five offenses of extreme evil he has committed;
In one thought they can be wiped away by reciting
The great vows of Samantabhadra.
His clan, Race, features and characteristics with his
wisdom are all perfected and complete;
Demons and externalists will have no way to harm
him, and he will be a field of merits in the triple
realm.
To the regal Bodhi tree he will quickly go, and
seated there subdue hordes of demons,
Supremely and perfectly enlightened, he will turn
the Dharma Wheel,
To benefit all sentient beings.
If anyone can read, recite, receive, and hold high
Samantabhadras vows and proclaim them,
His reward only the Buddha’s will know,
and he will achieve Supreme Enlightenment.
If anyone recites Samantabhadras vows,
I will speak of a portion of his good roots:
182 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
in one single thought he can fulfill
the pure vows of sentient beings.
The supreme and endless blessings from
Samantrabhadras conduct
I now universally transfer;
May every living being, drowning and adrift,
Soon return to the pure land, the land of
Limitless light!
When the great Bodhisattva Samantabhadra finished
speaking these pure verses on the great Vows of
Samantabhadra before the Buddha, the youth Sudhana
was overwhelmed with boundless joy. All the Bodhisattvas
were extremely happy as well, and the Buddha applauded
saying “Good indeed, Good Indeed...”
The Smaller Sukhavati-Vyuha Sutra
Translated from Chinese by Hisao Inagaki
[1] Thus have I heard. At one time the Bhagavat was
staying in Jeta Grove monastery in Anathapindada’s
Garden at Shravasti, together with a large company of
twelve hundred and fifty monks, who were all venerable
shravakas and well-known great arhats. They were headed
by eminent shravakas, such as the Venerable Shariputra,
Mahamaudgalyayana, Mahakashyapa and Aniruddha. He
was also accompanied by innumerable bodhisattvas,
mahasattvas, who were all dwelling in the Stage of Non-
retrogression and were adorned with immeasurable merits
and virtues, headed by great bodhisattvas, such as
Bodhisattva, Bodhisattva Ajita, Bodhisattva Nityodyukta
and Bodhisattva Anikshipta-dhura. Also in the assembly
were a hundred thousand kotis of nayutas [of devas] headed
by Shakra along with the King of Mahabrahma Heaven,
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 183
the Lord of Saha world, as well as the Four Guardian Kings
and others. Many demi-gods, innumerable heavenly and
human beings, asuras and others assembled and took their
seats to.
[2] The Bhagavat said to Shariputra: “Do you know that
if you travel westwards from here, passing a hundred
thousand kotis of nayutas of Buddha-lands, you come to the
land called Utmost Bliss,’ where there is a Bhagavat named
‘Amitayus’ or ‘Amitabha’ with ten titles, including Tathagata,
Arhat and Samyaksambuddha. He is living there at this
very moment, teaching the profound and wonderful Dharma
to sentient beings to give them supreme benefit and bliss.
[3] “Why, Shariputra, is that land called ‘Utmost Bliss’?
Shariputra, beings in that land suffer no afflictions and pain
but experience only pure immeasurable joy and happiness.
For this reason, that land is called ‘Utmost Bliss.’
“Again, Shariputra, in the pure Buddha-land of Utmost
Bliss there are seven rows of jewelled balustrades, seven
rows of jeweled tala-trees, and sevenfold jewelled nets,
which surround everywhere and are completely decorated
with four jewels, namely, gold, silver, beryl and crystal.
Shariputra, that Buddha-land is full of such glorious
adornments of supreme qualities, which are most pleasing
to the mind. For this reason, that land is called ‘Utmost
Bliss.’
“Again, Shariputra, in the pure Buddha-land of Utmost
Bliss here and there are many seven-jewelled ponds filled
with water of eight excellent qualities, namely, (1) pure, (2)
cool, (3) sweet-tasting, (4) soft, (5) moistening, (6) comforting,
(7) quenching thirst, hunger and many other needs, and
(8) nourishing the senses, increasing the activities of the four
elements and producing superior goodness. Sentient beings
with a large stock of merits always enjoy using such water.
The bottom of these ponds is lined with gold sand....
184 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
“Tn the ponds, at all times, lotuses of various colours as
large as chariot-wheels are in bloom. Blue flowers radiate
blue light, brilliance and splendor; yellow ones radiate yellow
light, brilliance and splendor; red ones radiate red light,
brilliance and splendour; white ones radiate white light,
brilliance and splendor; four-coloured ones radiate four-
coloured light, brilliance and splendor. Shariputra, that
Buddha-land is full of such glorious adornments of supreme
qualities, which are most pleasing to the mind. For this
reasons, that land is called ‘Utmost Bliss.’
“Again, Shariputra, in that pure Buddha-land of Utmost
Bliss limitless exquisite music is spontaneously played at all
times. The sound is harmonious and most pleasant to hear.
When sentient beings hear its excellent sound, their evil
passions are completely removed, numerous good acts
multiply, and they soon attain the highest perfect
Enlightenment. Shariputra, that Buddha-land is full of such
glorious adornments of supreme qualities, which are most
pleasing to the mind. For this reason, that land is called
‘Utmost Bliss.’
“Again, Shariputra, the ground throughout that pure
Buddha-land of Utmost Bliss is of true gold. It is soft to the
touch and refreshing, shining boundlessly and adorned with
rare jewels. Shariputra, that Buddha-land is full of such
glorious adornments of supreme qualities, which are most
pleasing to the mind. For this reason, that land is called
‘Utmost Bliss.’
“Again, Shariputra, in that pure Buddha-land of Utmost
Bliss, six times during the day and night, various heavenly
blossoms of rare beauty continuously rain down from the
sky. They are brilliant and refreshing, soft and variegated,
pleasing to the mind and the senses. They do not rouse
greedy attachment, but increase countless inconceivable
merits in sentient beings. Six times during the day and
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 185
night, the beings in that land offer those blossoms to
Amitayus in homage. Every morning they take those
heavenly blossoms and, in such a short time it takes for a
meal, fly to innumerable other lands to pay homage to a
hundred, thousand kotis of Buddhas. They offer to each
Buddha a hundred thousand kotis of such blossoms and
return home to the Pure Land, as if to enjoy leisure in a
heavenly abode. Shariputra, that Buddha-land is full of
such glorious adornments of supreme qualities, which are
most pleasing to the mind. For this reason, that land is called
‘Utmost Bliss.’
“Again, Shariputra, in that pure Buddha-land of Utmost
Bliss there are always many rare species of beautiful birds
of various colours, such as swams, geese, herons, storks,
cranes, peacocks, parrots, kalavinkas and jivamjivakas. Six
times during the day and night, those birds form a flock and
sing with melodious and delicate tones, producing diverse
sounds to proclaim numerous wonderful teachings, such as
the [four] mindful acts, the [four] ways of stopping evils, the
(four] miraculous powers, the [five] roots of goodness, the
[five] powers, the [seven] factors of wisdom, and the
[Kightfold) Noble Path. Having heard their singing, the
sentient beings in that land gain innumerable merits through
mindfulness of the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha, and their
bodies long retain the perfume of virtue. Shariputra, do you
think that the birds in that land belong to the evil realm of
animals? Do not hold such a view! The reason is that none
of the three evil realms, not even their names, exist...
“Acain, Shariputra, in that pure Buddha-land of Utmost
Bliss soft breezes always blow. When they waft through the
jewelled trees and jewelled nets, wonderful sounds are
produced. As if a hundred thousand kotis of celestial musical
instruments were playing together to produce exquisite
sounds, when soft breezes which constantly arise in that
land waft through the jewelled trees and jewelled nets, they
186 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
produce various excellent sounds, which proclaim many
teachings of the Dharma. Having heard those sounds,
sentient beings in that land give rise to numerous meritorious
acts, such as mindfulness of the Buddha, Dharma and
Sangha. Shariputra, that Buddha-land is full of such
glorious adornments of supreme qualities, which are most
pleasing to the mind. For this reason, that land is called
‘Utmost Bliss.’
“Shariputra, in that pure Buddha-land of Utmost Bliss
there are wonderful manifestations such as those, which are
innumerable and inconceivable. Even if a hundred thousand
kotis of nayutas of innumerable tongues should praise their
excellent qualities for a hundred thousand kotis of nayutas
of kalpas, each tongue producing immeasurable voices, they
would not be able to praise them to the full. For this reason,
(that land] is called the Land of Utmost Bliss.
[4] “Again, Shariputra, why is the Buddha of the pure
Buddha-land of Utmost Bliss called ‘Amitaytus’? Because,
Shariputra, the life-span of that Tathagata and all beings
living there last for immeasurable and innumerable great
kalpas, the Tathagata of that land is called ‘Amitayus.’
Shariputra, why is the Buddha also called ‘Amitabha’?
Shariputra, the Tathagata always emits boundless and
innumerable rays of glorious light, illuminating all the
Buddha-lands of the ten directions without hindrance, so as
to display Buddhist ac...
“Again, Shariputra, the Buddha Amitayus of that pure
Buddha-land of Utmost Bliss always has shravaka disciples,
all of them arhats, who are possessed of various excellent
merits and whose number is unlimited and incalculable.
Shariputra, the Pure Land of that Buddha is full of such
glorious adornments, which are most pleasing to the mind.
For this reason, that land is called ‘Utmost Bliss.’
“Again, Shariputra, the Buddha Amitayus of that pure
Buddha-land of Utmost Bliss always has innumerable
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 187
bodhisattva disciples, all of them in the Stage of Becoming
a Buddha after One More Life. They are possessed of various
excellent merits, and their number is unlimited and
incalculable. Even if one praised their merits for innumerable
kalpas, one would not be able to praise them fully.
Shariputra, that Buddha-land is filled with such glorious
adornments, which are most pleasing to the mind. For this
reason, that land is called ‘Utmost Bliss.’
[5] “Again, Shariputra, sentient beings born in that land
all dwell in the Stage of Non-retrogression, and will not fall
again into an evil realm, be born in a border-land or in the
state of debased people or mlecchas. They. always enjoy
visiting pure lands of other Buddhas. With their excellent
vows and practice advancing and developing every moment,
they will unfailingly realize the highest, perfect
Enlightenment. Shariputra, that Buddha-land is full of such
glorious merits, which are most pleasing to the mind. For
this reason, that land is called ‘Utmost Bliss.’
“Again, Shariputra, if sentient beings hear of the
glorious manifestations of countless merits in that pure
Buddha-land of Amitayus, they should all awaken aspiration
to be born there. The reasons are: first, those born there will
meet those Great Beings adorned with such countless merits
as mentioned above: second, they will enjoy the pleasure of
the Mahayana Dharma intrinsic to this pure Buddha-land
adorned with such innumerable merits; and third, with their
own immeasurable vows and practice advancing and
developing every moment, they will quickly realize the
highest perfect Enlightenment. Shariputra, those who are
to be born in that Buddha-land do not have few but already
countless and unlimited merits, so such sentient beings can
attain birth in the pure Buddha-land of Utmost Bliss of the
Buddha Amitayus.
“Again, Shariputra, if good men or women of pure faith,
having heard Amitayus Buddha’s name of innumerable,
188 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
boundless and inconceivable merits and also heard of the
glor...
“Shariputra, as I perceive that such blissful benefits are
matters of great importance, I pronounce these words of
truth: Good men and good women of pure faith who hear
Amitayus Buddha's name of inconceivable merits and also
learn of the pure Buddha-land of Utmost Bliss should all
receive [the teaching] in faith, arouse aspiration, practise
the method as prescribed, and attain birth in that Buddha-
land.
[6] “Shariputra, just as I praise the innumerable,
unlimited and inconceivable merits of the Buddha-land of
Amitayus, so do the Buddhas of the eastern direction as
numerous as the sands of the Ganges, such as Aksobhya
Tathagata, Meru-dhvaja Tathagata, Mahameru Tathagata,
Meru-prabhasa Tathagata, and Manju-dhvaja Tathagata.
While dwelling in their own pure lands of the east, they
extend their long, broad tongues and, encompassing with
them the universe of a thousand million worlds, pronounce
these words of truth: Sentient beings should all receive in
faith this gate of the Dharma concerning praise of the
inconceivable merits of the Buddha-land and protection by
all Buddhas.
(7] “Again, Shariputra, there are in the southern
direction Buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges,
such as Candra-surya-pradipa Tathagata, Yashah-prabha
Tathagata, Maharci-skandha Tathagata, Meru-pradipa
Tathagata and Ananta-virya Tathagata. While dwelling in
their own pure lands of the south, they extend their long,
broad tongues and, encompassing with them the universe
of a thousand million worlds, pronounce these words of
truth: Sentient beings should all receive in faith this gate
. of the Dharma concerning praise of the inconceivable merits
of the Buddha-land and protection by all Buddhas.
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 189
[8] “Again, Shariputra, there are in the western
direction Buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges,
such as Amitayus Tathagata, Amita-skandha Tathagata,
Amita-prabha Tathagata, Amita-dhvaja Tathagata,
Maheshvara Tathagata, Mahaprabha Tathagata, Jvalana
Tathagata, Maharatna-ketu Tathagata and Sphuta-rashmi
Tathagata. While dwelling in their own pure lands of the
west, they extend their long, broad tongues and,
encompassing with them the universe of a thousand million
worlds, pronounce these words of truth: Sentient beings
should all receive in faith this gate of the Dharma
concerning praise of the inconceivable merits of the Buddha-
land and protection by all Buddhas.
(9] “Again, Shariputra, there are in the northern
direction Buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges,
such as Amita-prabha-vyuha-abhijna- buddhi Tathagata,
Mahaskandha Tathagata, Amrita-divya-dundubhi-
vaishvanara- nirghosa Tathagata, Jaleni-prabha Tathagata
and Salendra-raja Tathagata. While dwelling in their own
pure lands of the north, they extend their long, broad
tongues and, encompassing with them the universe of a
thousand million worlds, pronounce these words of truth:
Sentient beings should all receive in faith this gate of the
Dharma concerning praise of the inconceivable merits of the
Buddha-land and protection by all Buddhas.
[10] “Again, Shariputra, there are in the nadir Buddhas
as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, such as Sarva-
saddharma-darshana-yukti-sada-jvalana-rajottama-shri-
prabha Tathagata, Simha Tathagata, Yashas Tathagata,
Yashah-prabhasa Tathagata, Dharma Tathagata,
Saddharma Tathagata, Dharma-dhvaja Tathagata, Guna-
mitra Tathagata and Guna-nama Tathagata. While dwelling
in their own pure lands of the nadir, they extend their long,
broad tongues and, encompassing with them the universe
of a thousand million worlds, pronounce these words of
truth: Sentient beings should all receive in faith this
*
190 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Dharma-gate expounding praise of the inconceivable merits
of the Buddha-land and protection by all Buddhas.
[11] “Again, Shariputra, there are in the zenith Buddhas
as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, such as Brahma-
ghosa Tathagata, Naksatra-raja Tathagata, Gandha-
prabhasa Tathagata, Utpala-shri-kalpa Tathagata and
Sarvartha-darsha Tathagata. While dwelling in their own
pure lands of the zenith, they extend their long, broad
tongues and, encompassing with them the universe of a
thousand million worlds, pronounce these words of truth:
Sentient beings should all receive in faith this gate of the
Dharma concerning praise of the inconceivable merits of the
Buddha-land and protection by all Buddhas.
[12] “Again, Shariputra, there are in the south-eastern
direction Buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges,
such as Uttama-vipula-megha-ghosa-raja Tathagata. While
dwelling in their own pure lands of the south-east, they
extend their long, broad tongues and, encompassing with
them the universe of a thousand million worlds, pronounce
these words of truth: Sentient beings should all receive in
faith this gate of the Dharma concerning praise of the
inconceivable merits of the Buddha-land and protection by
all Buddhas.
[13] “Again, Shariputra, there are in the south-western
direction Buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges,
such as Uttama-surya-prabha-yasho-guna Tathagata. While
dwelling in their own pure lands of the south-west, they
extend their long, broad tongues and, encompassing with
them the universe of a thousand million worlds, pronounce
these words of truth: Sentient beings should all receive in
faith this gate of the Dharma concerning praise of the
inconceivable merits of the Buddha-land and protection by
all Buddhas.
[14] “Again, Shariputra, there are in the north-western
direction Buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges,
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 191
such as Amita-guna-jvalanadhipati- prabhasa Tathagata.
While dwelling in their own pure lands of the north-west,
they extend their long, broad tongues and, encompassing
with them the universe of a thousand million worlds,
pronounce these words of truth: Sentient beings should all
receive in faith this gate of the Dharma concerning praise
of the inconceivable merits of the Buddha-land and
protection by all Buddhas.
[15] “Again, Shariputra, there are in the north-eastern
direction Buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges,
such as Asamkhya-shata-sahasra-koti- nayuta-vipula-
buddhi Tathagata. While dwelling in their own pure lands
of the north-east, they extend their long, broad tongues and,
encompassing with them the universe of a thousand million
worlds, pronounce these words of truth: Sentient beings
should all receive in faith this gate of the Dharma
concerning praise of the inconceivable merits of the Buddha-
land and protection by all Buddhas.
[16] “Shariputra, why is this sutra named the Dharma-
gate expounding praise of the inconceivable merits of the
Buddha-land and protection by all Buddhas? Shariputra, it
is revealed in this sutra that the inconceivable merits of
Amitayus Buddha’s Land of Utmost Bliss are praised and
glorified and that all Buddhas, Bhagavats, of the ten
directions, while dwelling in their own lands, display glorious
and wonderful manifestations and pronounce...
“Shariputra, if good men or women, who have heard this
sutra, now hear or will hear it, have already awakened or
will awaken deep faith, they are embraced by those
Buddhas, Bhagavats, dwelling in the ten directions, as
numerous as ten times the number of the sands of the
Ganges. All who practise as prescribed will not regress but
will definitely attain the highest perfect Enlightenment and
be born in the Pure Land of Utmost Bliss of Amitayus. For
this reason, Shariputra, all sentient beings should receive
in faith and understand well my words and the words of
192 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
the Buddhas, Bhagavats, of the ten directions, and should
make great efforts and diligently practise as prescribed. Do
not allow any doubt to arise.
“Again, Shariputra, if good men or women have already
aspired or will aspire or now aspire to the glorious
adornments in the Pure Land of Utmost Bliss of Amitayus,
they will be definitely embraced by those Buddhas,
Bhagavats, dwelling in the ten directions, as numerous as
the sands of the Ganges, even ten times that number. All
who practise as prescribed will not regress but will definitely
attain the highest perfect Enlightenment and be born in the
Pure Land of Utmost Bliss of Amitayus. For this reason,
Shariputra, good men and women of pure faith should all
believe deeply in Amitayus Buddha’s Pure Land of Utmost
Bliss and aspire to be born there. Do not be indolent.
[17] “Shariputra, just as I now praise and glorify the
inconceivable merits of Amitayus Buddha's Land of Utmost
Bliss, all other Buddhas, Bhagavats, of the ten directions
likewise praise my boundless inconceivable merits, saying:
‘How marvellous it is that Shakyamuni, Shakya Dharma-
King, Tathagata, Arthat, Samyaksambuddha, Possessed of
Wisdom and Practice, Sugata, Knower of the World, the
Unsurpassed, Tamer of Men, Teacher of Gods and Humans,
Buddha and Bhagavat, has appeared in this Saha world
during the period of the five corruptions: namely, those of
time, sentient beings, passions, views and life-span, and
that, having attained the highest perfect Enlightenment,
delivered this teaching, most difficult for the world to accept,
in order to guide and benefit sentient beings and give them
peace and bliss.’
“Thus, Shariputra, you should know that I have
appeared in this Saha world of various defilements during
the period of the five corruptions and, having attained the
highest...
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 193
[18] When the Bhavagat had delivered this sutra, all
the great shravakas, such as the Venerable Shariputra, and
bodhisattvas, mahasattvas, together with all beings,
including innumerable devas, humans and asuras, greatly
rejoiced at the Buddha’s exposition and received it in faith.
By Bhikkhu Sasena Kiffi alias Rev. Hye Dahl, South
Korea.
The Ways of Enlightenment
Verse 1. Suffering Follows The Evil-Doer
Manopubbangama dhamma
manosettha manomaya
manasa ce padutthena
bhasati va karoti va
tato nam dukkhamanvett
cakkamva vakhato padam.
Verse 1: All mental phenomena have mind as their
forerunner; they have mind as their chief; they are mind-
made. If one speaks or acts with an evil mind, ‘dukkha’
(suffering) follows him just as the wheel follows the hoofprint
of the ox that draws the cart.
Verse 2. Happiness Follows The Doer of Good
Manopubbangama dhamma
manosettha manomaya
manasa ce pasannena
bhasati va karoti va
tato nam sukha! manveti
chayava anapayint.
Verse 2: All mental phenomena have mind as their
forerunner; they have mind as their chief; they are mind-
made. If one speaks or acts with a pure mind, sukha
(happiness) follows him like a shadow that never leaves him.
The above two verses are taken from the Dhammapada,
the famous Buddhist book which contain 423 verses of the
Buddha. In the above verses, mind, which is the main focus
194 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
of the Buddhist practice, has been given foremost importance
by the Buddha. Mind, the origin of all kinds of thoughts,
forms the very basis of all of our future suffering and
happiness. The origin of thoughts in our mind and the
resulting speech and action determines our future states. So
the practice or cultivation of mind ts to keep the mind fully
free from all kinds of defilement because the pure mind
without any defilement means the blissful state or
happiness.
Mind is considered as originally pure and without any
defilement. It is contaminated only when it ts stained by
passions and delusions. The purity of the mind ts often
compared with the cloudless sky or with the mirror that does
not have even the tiniest particle of dusts or with the
unpolluted water of the pond where everything in the bottom
can. be clearly visible. Sentient beings live in the world of
‘orment and delusion but the Buddha is one who has
completely transcended such a world. The delusion-free state
of the mind is also called the state of supreme
enlightenment. Sometimes it is called No Mind. And the aim
of the practice is to achieve this state of supreme
enlightenment through the elimination of all delusions.
Based on the sutras, there are 84,000 delusions that are
classified into two major groups as conscious and
unconscious. The thoughts or the delusions at the conscious
level can be cognizable but there are tiny unconscious
delusions stored in the Alayavinnana or the “storehouse”
consciousness which are extremely difficult to cognize. Even
a Bodhisattva at the 8th level of sainthood or an Arahant
are not aware of delusions at this level. This can be known
fully only by those who have achieved Supreme
Enlightenment, by the Buddha.
Giving the utmost priority of these ideal teachings of the
Buddha, practitioners (meditators) who seek ultimate
liberation from the sufferings of the world, engaged
themselves in the practice of mental cultivation or —
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 195
purification of the mind. All the negative forces of the mind
such as greed, aversion, delusion etc. form the hindrances
to the practice of mental purification. These defilements of
the mind are regarded as the enemy or foe (pali-ari). Totally
uprooting them (ari-foe, enemy; hant-destroy, conquer) by the
practitioner makes the realization of the spiritual
culmination called Arahant in the Theravada tradition.
Thus an Arahant has conquered or destroyed all kinds of
defilements of the mind. Thus one who has attained
arahantship has “laid down the burden” and realized the
goal of Nibbana, the culmination of spiritual life.
In the Pali Canon, the Buddha has described the
Arahant as the Worthy One or the highest grade of a noble
person, “Ariya Puggala.” The word Arahant was also used
as an epithet of the Buddha himself as well as his disciples.
However, arahantship could not be directly realized or
attained. Based on the purification level of the mind, there
are four stages of spiritual attainment. Arahant is the highest
one, having fully purified the mind, and the other three are
sotapanna, sokadagami and anagamt. Attainment of all
these stages of spirituality is classified on the basis of
purification level of the mental defilements, by the
practitioners. The mental defilements which are mainly the
three poisons such as greed, aversion and delusion can also
be explained on the basis of Ten Fetters. The Ten Fetters,
also known as the Ten Chief Hindrances and the children
of Mara, which are claimed by the Buddha specifically and
Buddhism generally as standing in the way of
enlightenment.
The Ten fetters are as follows :
1. Personality belief (sakkaya-ditti)
2. Skeptical doubt (Vicikiccha)
3. Addherence to wrongful rites, rituals and ceremonies
(Silabbataparamasa)
4, Sensual desire (Kama-raga)
196 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
5. Ill will or hatred (Pathiga)
6. Craving for fine material-existence (rupa-raga)
7. Craving for non-material existence (arupa-raga)
8. Conceit or arrogance (Mana)
9. Restlessness (Udhacca)
10. Ignorance (Avijja). |
The first five Fetters are known as Lower Fetters
(orambhagiya-samyojana) because they bind us to the
sensuous world. The second five Fetters are known as Higher
Fetters (uddhambhagiya-samyojana) because they bind us
to the rupa and arupa worlds.
The removal of the first three fetters makes one a stream
enterer or sotapatti, one who's final awakening is assured
within seven further rebirths.
The removal of the first three fetters and the dilution of
the next two makes one a “once returner” or sakadagami in
other words there will be only one more rebirth as a human
being before enlightenment.
The complete abandonment of the first five fetters makes
one a “non-returner” or anagami and therefore leads to
rebirth in one of the Buddhist pure abodes where final
awakening is assured.
An Arahant is one in whom all ten fetters have been
destroyed and no more further rebirth takes place. After fully
uprooting or destroying the mental defilements, an Arahant,
after biological death, is not reborn into any samsaric realm
because all causes of future becoming have been removed.
The Arahant creates no new Karma; he has gone beyond
both good and evil, but he must still live with the Karmic
effects of his previous actions.
In the Ratana Sutta, it says: “Their past is dead, the new
no more arises, Mind to future becoming is unattached, and
the germ has died. They have no more desire for growth.
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 197
Those wise (and steadfast ones) go out just as this lamp has
gone out.” (Sutta Nipata, 14)
Many great disciples of the Buddha have attained
parinibbana. To name a few: Sariputta, Moggalana,
Mahakassapa, Ananda, Upali, Assaji, ete.
Every practitioner in the Theravada tradition aspires to
become an Arahant and attain the spiritual stage which is
free from all kinds of samsaric suffering.
But with the growth of Mahayana tradition, the
ultimate aim of attainment of arahantship as the final
spiritual stage has been shifted to the ideal of becoming a
Bodhisattva.
Unlike an Arahant that does not reborn again, the
bodhisattva postpones his/her liberation (final
enlightenment) and is reborn again and again to help other
sentient beings in the world to attain spiritual progress.
Indeed, the bodhisattva vows to save all sentient beings
before going to full nirvana. Thus, the bodhisattva out of
compassion for the living beings in the world chooses to be
reborn again and again in samsara voluntarily in order to
aid all living beings to become enlightened.
Although those on the path of Arahant also help others,
often extensively, that helps ends with the entering of
Nibbana because the Arahant is not reborn again. So
sometimes, it is branded as narrow as it limits liberation
only to an individual.
The reference of the bodhisattva ideal can be found in
the original text of the Theravada tradition. In the Jataka
stories, there are numerous references of the Buddhas former
life as a Bodhisattva. It is mentioned in the Jataka Stories
that the bodhisattva has undergone numerous rebirths in
different forms of life in different realms of existence as a
Bodhisattva (aspirant of enlightenment). The Bodhisattva
has to fully develop the six paramis (ten in Theravada) to -
become a fully enlightened one. In the course of perfecting
198 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
the paramis, the Bodhisattva undertakes various activities
out of compassion, helping and guiding the sentient beings
through the path of liberation. We find in the Jataka stories
that the Bodhisattva on many occasions has even sacrificed
himself for the cause of saving other living beings.
But Bodhisativa carries a different meaning in
Mahayana Buddhism to Theravada Buddhism. In the Pali
scriptures the Tathagata when relating his own experiences
of self-development uses a stock phrase ‘when I was an
unenlightened Bodhisattva’. Bodhisattva thus connotes here .
the absence of enlightenment (Bodhi) of a person working
towards that goal. In Mahayana Buddhism, on the other
hand a Bodhisattva is an “enlightened being” who has
reached ultimate understanding, and delays the final
enlightenment to help others make spiritual progress. Thus
the Bodhisattva seeks to put the welfare of others before their
own, forfeiting their own final enlightenment until all
ings are saved.
To quote His Holiness the Dalai Lama: “Nirvana may
be the final object of attainment, but at the moment it is
difficult to reach. Thus the practical and realistic aim is ©
compassion, a warm heart, serving other people, helping
others, respecting others, being less selfish. By practicing
these, you can gain benefit and happiness that remain
longer. If you investigate the purpose of life and, with the
motivation that results from this inquiry, develop a good
heart - compassion and love. Using your whole life this way,
each day will become useful and meaningful.”
To save ali sentient beings, the bodhisattva undertakes
what is called the bodhisattva vows. Following are the four
great vows of the Bodhisattva :-
1. However innumerable sentient beings are, I vow to
save them.
2. However inexhaustible the defilements are, I vow to
extinguish them.
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 199
3. However immeasurable the dharmas are, I vow to
master them.
4. However incomparable enlightenment is, I vow to
attain it.
There is in the Mahayana metaphysics a whole cosmology
full of heavenly Bodhisativas. Many celestial bodhisattvas
are worshipped along with the Gautama Buddha and the
buddhas of other worlds. The most important celestial
bodhisattvas are Avalokitesvara, the bodhisattva of
compassion; Manjusri, the bodhisattva of wisdom; and
Mattreya, who presently abides in Tushita heaven awaiting
to be reborn as the next Buddha.
The term is also used for human beings who have taken
the Bodhisattva Vow to heart to such an extent that they will
keep it through all their future lives.
However, to practice the Bodhisattva ideal one must first
generate “bodhicitta”. Bodhicitta ts translated as an
enlightened (Bodhi) mind (citta). It is the mind that is based
on compassion and love upon which the bodhisattva vows
to attain enlightenment in order to be of the greatest benefit
to all sentient beings. A popular Mahayana saying is that
the Buddhas are born from bodhisattvas and bodhisattvas
from the bodhicitta.
The rise of Mahayana Buddhism has brought many
fascinating and new developments in Buddhism. The most
~ important factor is the renewed emphasis on compassion and
the significance of Bodhisattva (a Buddha to be), postponing
his or her own liberation to bring all sentient beings to the
state of Nibbana by becoming a fully enlightened Buddha.
As each of us has an inherent Buddha nature, everybody
can and will become a Buddha at some point in time. The
Theravadins still hold the view that though attaining
Buddhahood is the highest ideal, it is too difficult and
beyond most people’s capabilities. Indeed they hold the view
that only one Supreme enlightened Buddha (Samma
200 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Sambuddha) can exist in each global time period. Similarly,
we can also see in the Mahayana countries the practice of
offering prayers and devotion to the divine Bodhisattvas
while requesting help and protection. The feeling is that
people in this age cannot reach enlightenment. What they
can do is ask a Bodhisattva for help, and these Bodhisattvas
will, in return for devotion, ensure that you reincarnate into
a heavenly world (the pure land), after which enlightenment
is a simple step.
Many Buddhists, especially the westerners, tend to see
both the Theravada and the Mahayana approaches as not
being contradictory or in opposition but rather as
contemporary to each other. The Mahayana ts often seen as
an expansion of or commentary on Theravada teachings.
To conclude, there can be of no points of difference for
any practitioner seeking spiritual attainment, since mind
forms the beginning as well as the end of our practice.
Indeed we dont need to seek some place outside ourselves
fo: Buddha nature or Tathagathagabbha (seed of Buddha)
ts inherent in our mind. “Its brightness ts not something
that we have to produce; rather it is the intrinsic nature of
mind, the citta.” (Ajahn Amaro in Silent Rain) The most
important step in spiritual growth ts the first: we must begin
by making a decision to avoid unwholesome and cultivate
wholesome states within our stream of being. On the basis
of this fundamental discipline every spiritual quality
becomes possible, even the eventual perfection of
Buddhahood.
1. Dhammapada (Sacred book of the East)
Translated by Daw Mya Tin, M.A.
Edited by Editorial Committee, Burma Tipitaka
Association Rangoon, Burma, 1986.
The sun is bright by day
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 901
The moon shines bright by night
The warrior ts bright in his armour
The Brahmana ts bright in his meditation
But Buddha, the awakened
Is bright with splendor day and night.
2. “Generating the bodhimind” by His Holiness Kybje
Ling Rimpoche, senior tutor of His Holiness The
Dalat Lama.
. “Echoes from Mt. Kaya” selections on Korean
Buddhism by Ven. Song chol, Patriarch of the
Korean Chogye Order.
4. “Silent Rain” Ajahn Amaro.
5. The Ten Fetters of Buddhism presented by.
6. The rise of Mahayana by Graeme Lyall.
History of Buddhism - Chronology
563-483 B.C.
Life of Siddharta Gautama, otherwise known as
Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, [short description
of his life]. Buddha’s foremost disciple was
Shariputra. Buddha’s closest companion was Ananda.
History writes after the king Prasenjit who was a great
admirer of Buddha he was succeeded by his son Vidudhava
who massacred the Sakya clan in Kapilvastu (50,000) in one
day), sparing neither men or women and children. That was
virtually the end of Sakya clan there in Buddha's life time.
many moved out from there and established kingdom and
returned to Sakya clan outside Kapilavastu in Burma
(myanmar). They hatted at many places on the route.
486 B.C/483 B.C.
° First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha, under the
patronage of King Ajatasattu. Oral tradition
established for the first time.
202 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
383/3U6/350 B.C.
e Second Buddhist Council at Vesali about 100 year
after the Parinirvana.
e First schism of the Sangha occurs in which the
Mahasanghika school parts ways with the Sthaviras
or Theras (elders), regarded as the founders of
Therevada Buddhism.
© Reign of Indian Emperor Asoka who converts and
establishes the Buddha’s Dharma on a national level
for the first time. He also sends out Buddhist
missionaries all around the then known world.
Traceble are the emergence of Buddhism all over
India and in Indonesia.
250 B.C.
¢ Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra under the
patronage of Emperor Asoka about 200 years after
the Parinirvana. This council is not recognised
among Mahayana Buddhists.
240 7' 247 B.C.
e Asoka’s son and missionary Mahinda established -
Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
50 B.C.
® Modern scholars believe that Buddhism was in fact
being introduced into China by at least this date by
traveling merchants, if not by missionaries.
30 - 100 B.C. or 35-32 B.C.
e Entire scriptural canon of Theravada School was
committed to writing on palm leaves in Pali at the
Aloka Cave, near Matale, Sri Lanka.
2 BCE
Ashvaghosa wrote an inspired biogaphy of Buddha
and gave rise to Buddhism.
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 203
[0 A.D.]
° The alledged birth of Christ, the beginning of the
Christian Era on which all the date, here mentioned
are based.
¢ During the first century A.D. Buddhism reached
China from India. Buddhism was one of the few
foreign influences that had a deep impact on chinese
life. It spread along caravan trade routes (Silk routes)
that linked India to China and western world.
c. 150-250
° Indian Buddhist philosopher Nargarjuna founds the
school of Madhyamika (‘the Middle Way’), one of the
major schools within Mahayana Buddhism.
c. 320-400
° Asanga and his brother Vasubandhu develop the
new school of Yogacara Buddhism. They were very
reknowned Buddhist Teacher and founder of Both
Hinayana and Mahayana and greatly developed
Buddhist Psychology.
375
e King Sosurium, the 17th ruler of the Koguryo
Kingdom of Korea, establishes Buddhism as the
spiritual foundation of the state and Confucius's
teachings as its legal base. This marks the start of
Buddhist influence all over Korea, though in some
portions of the land Buddhists are persecuted in this
era.
4th Century — 5th century
e Translation of Buddhist texts into Chinese by
Kumarajiva (344-413) and Hui-yuan (334-416).
5th Century
e Amitabha (Amida) Pure Land sect emerges in China,
founded by Hui Yuan, a convert from Daoism.
204 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
¢ Buddhaghosa composes the Visuddhimagga and
major commentaries in Sri Lanka. He thereby
systematizes Therevada Buddhism’s doctrines.
c. 500-528
e Buddhists are persecuted by Hindus in India,
leading to a Buddhist migration east into
southeastern Asia.
c. 500-539
562-645 Pure Land Buddhism under the influence of
Tan Luan’s
e Chan Buddhism (in Japanese Zen) is introduced to
China through Bodhidharma, probably from India.
1133-1212
¢ Founder of the Jodo Shu Saigo the first independent
pure land Buddhist school in Japan.
1173-1262
¢ Disciple of Honen Shinran and founder of the
Jodoshi Shu School. He advocated reliance in faith
upon Amida.
1197 A.D.
~ © Muhammed-i-Bakhtyar Khilji conquered Bihar and
Nalanda Buddhist university and massacred the
Buddhists. Two years later he advanced to Bengal
and took possession of Gaur, the Scythions Kingdom.
1239-1289
¢ Ippen founder of the Jishu, a school of pure land
Buddhism.
e History continues mentioning chinese scholar Hiuen
Tsiang visited north Bihar that was divided into Vreji
to the north and vaisali to the south, both the
countries stretching eastwards to the Mahananda
south of Ganges the present manghyr and south
Bhagalpur (Champa kingdom), the santal paraganas
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 905
and Bhirbhum. Muhammad Khilji destroyed the
capital Odantopuri and massacred the Buddhist
monks assembled there. The glorified history of that
time has not been excuvated by the archeologists till
the present day.
1357-1419
e Tsong-kha-pa becomes a major Tibetan Buddhist
reformer and founder of Dge-lugs-pa (or Gelugpa,
or ‘Yellow Hat’) order. He abolishes marriage for the
lama’s in his order.
15th Century
° Beginning of Dalai Lama lineage in Tibetan
Buddhism. The current is the 14 (fourteenth) Dalai
Lamas of Gelungpa, practicing Kalachakra. The
present Dalai Lama has given thirty Kala Chakra
initiations all over the world.
1616-1651
e Ngawang Namgyal (1594-1651), a Tibetan monk,
arrives in Bhutan, in flight from the Dalai Lama.
After defeating rival religious leaders, he becomes the
spiritual head of the country. As Bhutan’s first
national figure he is regarded as the father of this
nation. :
19th Century
e First Western translation of the Dhammapada.
(German-1862).
e German translation of Lotus Sutra, 1852 and pioneer —
Buddhist scholars: - Neumann and Odlenburg, first
German monk, Nyanatiloka.
e The history of Buddhism is dominated by Western
Colonialism. Colonialism is seen as both a
suppressing agent for Buddhism, in the form of
Christian Missionaries, for instance, as well as a
206 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
reinvigorating agent as old libraries are newly
studied.
° Buddhism will grow to be intertwined with
nationalistic and independence movements in various
Asian nations.
1875
© A public debate takes place in Sri Lanka between a
Buddhist monk and several Christian missionaries.
It is the intent of the Christians to convince the
people of the presumed superiority of Christianity,
but in fact the lone monk makes a strong case for
Buddhism. Published reports of the debate will have
considerable influence in convincing various
Westerners of the value of Buddhism. |
1880
© Colonel Olcott, president of the Theosophical Society
{see Theosophical Chronology] and H.P. Blavatsky
come to Sri Lanka where they embrace Buddhism
by teking Pansil. Colonel Olcott will be instrumental
in founding various Buddhist schools, often lead by
theosophists, creating the first Buddhist Catechism
and in creating the Buddhist flag. All this was part
of his effort to reinvigorate Buddhism and other
eastern religions. In the end his work was criticised
for being too much a mixture of various traditions,
with the result that none felt he was being true to
theirs.
e Anagarika Dharmapala met Olcott and Blavatsky
and became a member of the Theosophical Society.
He is encouraged by H.P. Blavatsky not to work for
theosophy, but for Buddhism.
1891
e The Maha Bodhi Society was founded by Anagarika
Dharmapala, member of the Theosophical Society, in
1891.
|
us Faith of Daily Life
i
igto
Buddhism Rel:
208 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Bana Bhante (Forest Monk) Mahastavir Sadhana Nanda
Buddhism Religious Faith of Daily Life 209
1893
° World Parliament of the Religions, Chicago.
Anagarika Dharmapala is there represent Theravada
Buddhism and becomes very popular.
1907
¢ Buddhist Society of Great Britain was founded.
1924
° The Buddhist Society was founded, by the late
Christmas Humphreys, member of the Theosophical
Society, building on the pioneer work of the Buddhist
Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1907 to 1925-
6) and it is one of the oldest Buddhist societies in
Europe. From its inception it has not been attached
to any one school of Buddhism, remaining non-
sectarian in character and open in principle to the
teachings of all schools.
1952
¢ Founding of World Fellowship of Buddhists.
1959
© Dalai Lama flees Tibet to India.
1989
© H.H. Dalai Lama receives Nobel Peace Prize.
Sources
e The Wilson Chronology of the World’s Religions,
edited by David Levinson, New York, 2000.
° http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/
b_ chron-txt.htm (checked October 20th 2004)
° The White Buddhist, The Asian Odyssey of Henry
Steel Olcott.
° http://www.thebuddhistsociety.org/ (checked October
20th 2004)
° http://www.bbc.co.uk/cchecked October 20th 2004).
904-2005
210
10.
| les
. The Tribes of the Brahamaputra Valley by L.A. Waddel.
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
References
a Hiuen Tsang’ 5 report
. by Bhikkhu Sarana Kitti alias Rev. Hye Dahl, South Korea-
Vyuha Sutra
. The ways of enlig
. History of Buddhism — Chronology
. Buddha Canonical Literature
. Chittagong Hill Tracts (Refugees within, Refugees
without) by Sanjay Hazarika.
. Eastern Bengal District Gazetteer, Chittagong by L.S.S.
O’ Malley, 1908.
8. A fly on the wheel by Capt. T.H. Lewin.
. Amnesty International — Report — ASA13/01/00 February
2000.
Amnesty International — Report —- ASA 13/01/00 February
The Tribes of the Brahamaputra Valley by L.A. Waddel.
4
Chakma Language and Script
Origin
Comparative evidences shows Chakma alphabetical
scripts! have shared characteristics in curvic style and tonal
affinities with Tai scriptures*. Historically during king
Ashokas period (BC 232) Tai scriptures spread through
Buddhist religious texts in many South-Asian countries’.
Their curvic form is almost identical with Tamil Dravidian
character of Southern India. There is another view — the
Chakma language written in an alphabets (originally)
which, has its curvic form and is almost identical with the
Khmeer character, which was formally in use in Cambodia,
Laos, Annan, Siam (now Thailand) and at least the
Southern of Burman Mon Type (Burma, Myanmar). These
Khmeer alphabets are in turn, the same as that which was
in South India in the 6th and 7th centuries. There is another
legacy activating our knowledge to know the root of Chakma
Scriptures and language. The local communication language
of Gautam Buddha’s time was Prakrit in 6th B.C. In
Buddha’s time their Brahma Desha comprised of Kasi. Kosal,
Videha and Magadhi. Chakmas have many distinguishing
words in their language. The origin of Brahmi script is not
known. But has Greek influence as the Indians of the
Gangetic valley were in close contact with Greek people. In
1907 the reknowned scholar.
Hara Parshad Shastri discovered in the repository of
king Nepal some ancient writing bearing no title on it. Later
he named it Charya pad and it was published by Bengal
literary society in 1916, in the name Buddhist in Bengal
1000 years ago. In 1916, Dr. Sunity Kumar Chatterjee,
national professor of India came with judgment that Charya
Pad is in the Original Bengali form which is discreetly in
212 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
the form of Buddhist text in poetry songs like “ode” poems
addressed to a person or things or celebrating an event
which was like Gangkhuli songs or old Chakmas writings
in poetry forms like prominent writing of Pranhani Talukdar
and Shivcharan Chakma. He Dr. S.K. Chatterjee is of the
opinion among the various forms of Bengali, the Chakma
language of CHT is one of them, but very little has been
done for its study, and there has been no serious work in
the language on scientific mission. The language compared
with any other form of vocabulary there are words from
Arakan (Barma), and a number of unexplained words which
makes its study very tantalizing‘ Chakma language has
intricacy with Magadhi and Arakanese one of the offshoot
of Tai language. As Chakmas were in Bengal province, the
Bengali language was their literary language and their
original language became their home dialect, and it has
changed life. They have great linguistic similarity with
language in the eastern India (Assamese, Orissa, Bihar,
Bengal of Magadhi language. In Tibetain it is called the
wonderful songs.
The central facts is that the study of Chakma language,
we have the reflection of pre- and post- Buddhist era of |
closer relation among nations. Buddhism survived in India
till 1000 BC; and so the Buddhist patronage. I quote from
James Merill:
lost, is it buried? One more missing piece?
But nothing’s lost, or else: all ts translation
And every bit of lost in it.
(or found-I wonder through the ruins of S
Now and then, wondering of peacefulness.’
Literary Works
Chakma’s oldest literary works are Shristi Pattam, Agar
Tara, Gengkhuli, Gogenlama, Radha Mohan Dhan Pudi and
many others. The original writing 1s not traceable. Heinz
Bechart German Anthropologist make a reference of Agar
Tara (20 sets of books) in his book Buddhism in East
Bengal. There is also a reference of Arya Tara (a
personification of Nirvana) in the Imperial Gazetter'
Categorizing people in India on linguistic basis, which has
been admitted as a home rule, where people are united on
Chakma Language and Script 213
language (linguistic state). So the language of the majority
are surviving and ethnic languages are on threat of
extinction. Their identity of being somebody is lost. It says :
Lose your language and you lose your culture.
Lose your culture and you lose your identity,
Lose your language and you will lose mutual
understandings.
Lose mutual understandings and you lose harmony,
mutual support and peace.
Lose your peace and you lose your brotherhood.
Lose your brotherhood and you will lose your destiny.
Queen Kalindi Rani of Chakma used Bengali as court
language during her reign. Bengali was also court language
of the British Colonial rulers. So Bengali became the Schoo]
language for Chakma students. Since 1870, and their native
language has fallen into disuse ever since. As a result, over
the space of time there have been some pre-eminent writers
in Bengali, one such celebrated writer is Pranendra Mohan
Regei (head of Regei clan). Pran Hari Talukdar, who
brought into light Chakma History, Rhyme, Folk Songs,
Poetry and many others. The central idea of some of the
poems has been translated into English by KR. Excelicia
Curville which are adjoined®” (original writing in Bengali).
Among the various forms of Bengali, the Chakma dialect
of Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts, which has also
spread into Burma, is of very great linguistic importance.
It would appear to be a form of South-Eastern Bengali as
spoken in Chittagong, but there has been a very widespread
phonetic decay or development, and at times along new
lines. Then the morphological system also shows some new
inflections. Further, the syntax has some special
characteristics of its own. The language, compared with any
other form of Bengali, appears to be very much abbreviated
and attenuated. In its vocabulary there are words from
Arakan (Burma), and a number of unexplained words which
make its study very tantalising.
Unfortunately very little has been done in the study of
214 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Chakma. Excepting one or two small monographs or notes
there has been; no serious work in the language. It has
become just a village patois and has no real literature to
boast of. There are some songs and poems of a popular
nature, partly religious and partly narrative, and excepting
for two books which were collected and published by Sri
Tripur Chandra Sen, no printed literature is available using
the Bengali script. Through the influence of the Bhikkhus
from among the Chakma people, who used to have their
training in Buddhism and Pali in Burma, the Burmese script
along with Pali manuscript was introduced among the
Chakmas some generations ago. They were cut of from the
main trend of Bengali literature, and in their isolation some
of them employed a kind of simplified Burmese script to
write their Bengali dialect. Some literature in this Burmese-
Chakma Bengali is found in manuscript writing, and
already with a view to bring out books in Burmese-Chakma
an enterprising Publisher had a fount of these special
Burmese-Chakma script cast for the language. But as this
is very recondite, and as it is not at all popular, it is fast
going out of use, and excepting for a few old people nobody
can write it. The best proposition for the Chakma dialect
would be to write it in Bengali characters as it has been
done successfully.
As students of Bengali and Indo-Aryan linguistics,we
are very much interested in the development of Chakma
studies.One or more Chakma young man or woman with a
knowledge of the language as it is spoken, combined with
a good knowledge of Bengali as well as English, should
immediately take up the task of preserving this language
for posterity by both study and publication of texts in it.
There is no lack of highly edudated and cultured peoples
among the Chakma speakers including some members of
the landed aristocracy as well as men in the professions.
Just to perpetuate a knowledge of their home dialect, they
should form themselves into an association for the
preservation and development of Chakma (Chakma,
Bhasha-Prabardhini Samiti).
I would suggest that some of the young men and women
studying for higher degrees in Calcutta should form
themselves into a Study-Group and start collecting materials
in Chakma, both such specimens of folk-poetry and folk-
literature as can be gleaned from among the older
generations and also by creating a literature of translations
from standard Bengali or other languages into Chakma. But
the more important thing would be to preserve the language
by its study and by gathering the floating material which
is on the way to passing into oblivion.
I trust that the leaders of the Chakma community in
Bengal and elsewhere will pay serious attention to this
matter and find out ways and means to keep up a study of
their language which is unique among the dialects of
Bengali for some of its intrinsic characters and qualities.
(Suniti Kumar Chatterji)?
Emeritus Professor of Comparative Philology, University
of Calcutta? Ex-Chairman, West Bengal Legislative Council
and National Professor of India in Humanities.
How beautiful our homeland Hill Chatal
Wondrous wonder: beautiful Hill Chatal
Enwrapped by surrounding hills
Over and beyond;
Shaped by river Karnaphuli:
Its turns and bends meandering
From valley to valley.
Valleys, peopled by those who till the land
Watered by those perennial mountain falls
Painting the hillsides green
Capturing the heart.
Hill Chatal: blessed with fruitful forest
And moving river, gliding in and out
Like a snake, yielding transport to
Earth-given products.
The surrounding hills are but
Demons bowing down to that
Sublime Peak: Chatal
Standing like a temple
Beckoning all to see its glory.
216 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Sounds in the forest, sounds of the wild-Tiger,
elephant, deer, bird : the
ferocious and the benign, yet peace reigns they live in
harmony.
Ever prateful to Kapti hydroelectric
Purposed on the vast river to
Accelerate development.
Here the engine boats move and
Fish dwell; giving rise to fish culture,
And varied trades move in
Intermingling in renewed lives
Enhancing modes of living.
Colonial rule broken, now comes progress
Speeding its way for men and women
Barriers pulled down, schools planted
Calling people to education
And technical perfection:
Doctors, engineers spring up
Taking their stand in this sorid
(translated — R. Excelicia Cunville)
AURA of Bowes
Power - forceful power:
Wherein lies its reason?
This force called POWER
Attacking the weak
Crumbling the little
Yet with no defined shape
Unforeseen in its ways:
But, so willingly worshipped
In all its man-made forms:
Wealth, Authority,
Knowledge, Physique
And alas : Ferocity;
How they bow to it
With fear.
Look forth to the Jataka stories
Behold Buddha's life:
Chakma Language and Script 917
High moral principles
Kindness, compassion
Melt gruesome POWER
Love takes control
That is True Power.
XXXRRAXAAXRXRAXAAKEX
Somewhere, in eternity
The world was born -
Etched as a playground
For its living beings:
Men, women, children
All playing their parts
Phases linked by intermezzos
A festival of varied people
Who simply go by.
Were there no attacks on life
No illness, no fightings within
The WORLD renamed PE
Life, people would still go by
Simply, calmly, eternally.
MXXARXRXARAXARXAXAXR
A world peace poem
Humans, proud: the highest of all creation
Attaining wisdom and knowledge untold
Nothing to stop them, barriers all broken
Conquering all, their pride unfolds.
Humans: ruling this world, taking their reign
Over all: animals, birds, illness, nature
Even darkness of night under their domain
Only death uncontrolled, they cannot shake its structure.
Human knowledge surpassing physics that destroys:
Cyclone, earthquake, tsunami, starvation,
Desiccated and removed, ignorance now is coy
218
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
While wisdom moves on, bringing more adoration.
New states they create, these wise people
Yet at some point they with each other battle
And along comes UNO playing its deified role
Pacifying, harmonising, uniting mankind from pole to pole.
(translated by R. Excelicia Cunville)
What is wisdom and its shape?
House of wisdom - human mind
Wealth of knowledge untold:
Where does it come from?
Who created the seed?
Wonder yet to be behold.
It lies asleep, but not for long
Awakening, it touches the senses
Sprightly waking some to light
But others still slumber
Under a cloud; they cannot shine.
Wisdom began with the world
Circling with time and space
Yet can widen its horizon —
through practice; Light gives Light -
no end; not so, Ignorance.
Ignorance, destroyer
Bringer of unreasonable fear
Blinding eyes from the Light:
No enlightenment, only destruction - the end of
everything.
Nations fight
Can't see the Light
Behold the birth of United Nations
But still - no Peace, ‘coz deep within
Ignorance, the destroyer still rules:
Leading to craving unsatisfied
Turning to unresolved struggling:
Chakma Language and Script 219
Husbands, wives, fathers, children
Cannot see eye to eye. |
There is no freedom when bound to struggle
(translated by R. Excelicia Cunville)
Behold the wedding celebration of Khuki Rani
Instruments fill the air with lilting melody
While Khoka adorns himself, ready to go and see
The scene around, and in her splendour - his bride Khu
Like a doll sequenced with jewels glittering
Diamonds and pearls her neck, ears, wrists bedecking
Face lit up, and on her head a crown
Such beauty C’en in a princess ne’er was found.
Khoka will Khuki Rani in her new attire see
From head to foot so resplendent with beauty, she
Astounding beauty - that will hearts on fire set
Beauty so perfect - only matched by the flower bed.
As fireworks light up the sky
She lets out a satisfied sigh
As music fills the air around
Wordless she stands, her heart with joys abound
Art of Writing and Literaus
A language boundary comprising of Phonology (sound):
Morphology (structure and form), Syntax (grammatical
arrangement of words), orthography (the accepted way of
spelling and spelling of words), Lexicography (the activities of
writing standard was of words), Syntactic (arrangement of
words) etc, Chakma language lacks in this field of work
(Chriteria). A few only, have the knowledge of art of writing,
which is considered a most powerful way to sharpen the
mental saw on deep level of thoughts, feeling and ideas to
understand effectively. So the society can not be called literate
(when the art of writing becomes a matter of social possession,
220 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
a society may be called literate). Looking briefly the society
may have been literate one time but it is now facing a break
(halt). Some institutions in the present world are most
concerned with the indigenous languages and it has become
the subject matter of study. Like Osaka University, Japan.
Chakma language has been included in their study since
1964, and already published papers on it edited by Prof.
Toshitaka Amano™. Clifford Geertz written in his book The
Interpretation of Cultures: The most important, the linguistic
study (and along with it, information theory and class logic)
also defines its basic units, its constituent elements, not in
terms of their common properties but their differences that 1s,
by constructing them in pairs. Binary opposition - that
dialectical chasm between plus and minus which computer
technology has rendered the Lingua franca of modern
sciences - forms the basis of savage thought as it does of
language. And indeed it is this which makes them essentially
a variant form of the some thing - Communication System.
There is a bright ray of hope for Chakma language, as it has
already been introduced in the schools upto class VII under
the programme (SARVA SIKSHA) education for all in the
Chakma District Council, (CADC) in Mizoram. Considering
the enormous difficulties and disadvantages faced by the
Chakmas in the southern part of Mizoram particularly during
the uprising of Mizo insurgency in 1966, Government of India
accorded self autonomy to a section of Chakmas independency
in internal affairs of the community. In the earlier time they
were in a very critical stage with no opportinity of education/
schooling that was a marval of contrivace with the rest
Mizoram. Now, they are happy just as they were with no big
ideas. Their greatest achievement of success to acquire a
sustainable life with a job. It is swinging a balance of
communal unity. of a limited geographical area whose
headquarter is at Kamalangar, in 1971 and since then many
have made upward mobility. It has attracted the impulse of the
Chakmas and they are now being uplifted in all fronts of
progress compared to their counterparts who are also in
Mizoram but outside the territorial area of the Autonomous
Chakma Language and Script 221
Chakma District (ACDC) under the general supervision of the
State Government of Mizoram. There has been an impulse
force of wind to keep Chakma indigenous language alive in
literary works and on this line various institutions are
engaged in bringing out magazines periodicals, etc. in Roman,
Bengali and Chakma scripts in all Chakma concentrated area
in India and Bangladesh.
Chakma, Tsakma, Tasak, Thek (Burm)
Sub-tribes Sepis
There are Amu. |
numerous | Bamu, named after rivers
septs among Barbora
chakmas : | Baruwa
Batalya, a chisel
|.Chakma | Boga
2. Doingnak HOTsege
3. Tungjainya ae
i: siti Bungza :
| Darjea
Dawin
Septs of the
Chakma
sub-tribe
Dhaona, he of the mended cloth
| Dhurjya, the wearer of bhimraj feathers
Durjea
Ichapocha, the eater of rotten shrimps
Kala, a plantain tree
Kengragati,! the giver of the big crab
Khambe
Khiongje
| Kura, named after rivers
Kurjya, the idle one
Kutua
Larma
Leba
| Loskra
| Molima, named after rivers.
222 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Molima-Sege
Phedungsa
Pirabhanga, the fat man who broke the stool
Poa
Poma
Rangyacelunya, the lover of shells or mother-of-
pearl
Ranyin
Sadonga
Sege
Sekowa
Shoalyia, the jester
Theya
Toinya
Warggu, name of a river
Aruyai, the man as thin as a skeleton
Badal, a chisel
Bangal, descended from a Bengali father
Septs of the Bhumar, he of high back ribs
Septs of the
Chakma
sub-tribe-
concluded
Tungjainya | Bola, he whose family was as numerous as the
sub-tribe —
Fariansa, he who excelled in wickedness
Gochalya, the strong man
Icha, he who was too fond of shrimps
Kachui, they who built their houses in a row
Lambacha
Lulang,’ the devil
Millong
Monpla
Mo-u
Ongyo
223
Chakma Language and Script
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on
bie
sje ber
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EI
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Funda - diyal - tha
Dy
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26.
224 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
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226 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
‘Chakma Language and Script or
Religious Places
Karatoya : Old river of eastern Bengal and Assam,
which rises in the Baikuntpur jungle in the estreme north-
west of Jalpaiguri district in 26°51'N and 88°28’E and
meanders through Rangpur until after a course of 214 miles,
it joins the stalhalia in the south of Bogra district in 24°38'N
and 89°29'E. The united stream is known as the Phuljhur
and it eventealy finds its way into the Jamuna. The
Karatoya bore in ancient times, as we learn from the
Purana’s, a high character for sanctity and its mermaid
goddess, whose image has been found among the reins of
Mahasthan, was widely worshipped and this place to even
now a favourite place of pilgrimage. The river is mentioned
in the Jogin Tantra as the western boundary of the ancient
kingdom of Kamarupa, which it separated from Pundra or ~
Paundravardhana, the country of Pods whose capital was
Mahasthan. It was along its right bank that Mukhammed-
i-Bakhtyar Khilji, the Muhammadan conquerer of Bengal
marehed upon his ill fated invasion of Tibet in 1205, and in
the narrative of that expedition the Karatoya is described
as being three times of the width of the Ganges. It was no
doubt the great river crossed by Hiuen Tsiang on his way
to Kamarupa in the seventh century and by Ala-ud-din
Husain on his invasion of the country in 1498.
(Imperial Gazetteer of India Vol. XV, p. 24)
Brahmi Script: (An extract from The Origin of Brahmi
Script) “The origin of Brahmi script is one of the most hotly
debated questions of ancient Indian history. The Brahmi
script are India’s own script. Did the Indian of pre-Asokan
time know the art of writing? It was presumed that the
script which was known to the Indians of the pre-Asokan
time was the earlier form of Asokan Brahmi. The question
of the antiquity of Brahmi and antiquity of the knowledge
of the art of writing in India is important. In the Vedic times
Aryans knew the art of writing the script must have been
228
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
TIBETO BURMANS
CHINA
SIAMESE CHINESE
[ met Awamees
MIM CH image
Areree coemege CO
THAILAND
LAP
SHOWING THE COURSE OF
THE MAIN BAMIGRATION OF
TIBETO BURMAN
WAVES INTO MYANMARLCHT
AND NORTH EAST INDIA
Chakma Language and Script 299
an earlier form of Ashokan Brahmi. But that may not be
true. The knowledge of art of writing to only a few can not
entitle that society to be called literate. When the art of
writing became a matter of social expression a society could
be called literate. The Tibetan society was certainly literate
in the age preceding the accession of Strong-Tsen-Gampo
(first half of the 7th century AD) through, because of their
contacts with China and India.
Greek Script: The Tibetans must have been aware of
the idea of writing and a few of them might have also learned
the script of their neighbours. Such a possibility can’t be
ruled out in the case of India of the pre-Mauryan and early
Mauryan periods also, at least with regard to knowledge of
the Greek script. The Indians of Gangetic valley were in close
contact with the Greeks and the people of Gandhara, etc.
at least since the conquest of Chandragupta Maurya. Now,
if Chandragupta Maurya married the daughter of Selucas
and Bimbisara was her son Asoka as well as his father might
have learned the Greek alphabets from the Greek lady or
even from Megasthenes. Therefore theoretically it is quite
possible that the message which Bindusara is said to have
sent to the contemporary Greek rulers were in Greek
language or script. But such instances can not prove the
prevalence of Greek language or script among the educated
Indians much less in the society in general. But it can not
prove the existence of pre-Ashokan form of Brahmi while
none of our sources indicate the existence of this particular
script in the pre-Ashokan period. We observe that in the
Vedic and the early Buddhist period all the religious and non-
religious literature including the indices was kept only in
memory. That is why Vedas designated as Sruti, the learned
were called Bahusutra. Only Mukhastha Vidya was held in
esteem and when writing came in to use the manuscripts
were designated as Sarasvatimukha. It may also be regarded
230 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
as significant that in the Vedic religion, which had such a
large pantheon, there was no god of writing. Sarasvati was
the Goddess of only speech in this period”.
Culture, Belief, Society and Social Mind
Being human is becoming individual and we become
individual under the guidance of cultural patterns,
historically created system of meaning in terms of which we
give form, order-point and direction to our lives. The guiding
principle of society like lives containing their own
interpretation. So, culture is providing some rituals that are
coming down historically in a society. As Clifford Geertz
writes, culture is generated in the womb of nature as men
in the belly of women. In worlds everything is transient -
growing and decaying. Everything in this world is relative,
change with respect of time and place. So in the holistic
world we go through life, we can only see the ‘shadow’ of
truth, the fact figure remain unknown. Human beings are
integrated in nature. If he does not use his reason or
intelligence for truth and knowledge, he becomes an animal.
Going back to history, the finding leads us to believe that
the migrants from Central Asia into India are known as
Scythian (Indo-Scythian). A group of them is known to be
Saka in which Sakyamuni Buddha (Gautama) was born.
Chakmas are blood related with Saka. Saka (Chak) in which
Burmans (Burmese, Arakanis, Mayanmars) are the blood
brothers. According to Friedrich Miller and other German
ethnologist Chakmas belong to Lohitic (Tibeto-Burman)
group because of their association with Tsangpho
(Brahamaputra) River on the bank of which they must have
lived at one time in the olden days.
Social Customs
| There are still many social customs common of Tai-
Shans people like Khamti, Ahoms with Chakmas like
marriage solemnized with sacrifices of fowls and pigs called
Chakma Language and Script 231
Chumulong in Chakma and Chaklong in Ahoms and
Khamtis Tai races. In their social mind they thrieve
relationship of people of South Asian region they have
believe in F (evil sprit) and purifying from such misfortunes
through some ceremonies call Burpara which is performed
by village clergy. In the social cultural festival of Chakmas
and Tai-Shans people there is a ceremonial festival call Biju
in Chakma and Bihu in Tai-Shans people of Assam. The Biju
festival is the biggest culture festivity of Chakmas which is
celebrated on the first three days; last day of the year and
the first two days of Baisak (new year of Bengali calendar
in the month of April every year. It is celebrated with pomp
and show by all groups small, young, old men and women.
They decorate their houses according to their resourcefulness
with scented perfumes in all homely items prepared by them
on that occasion. The guests are received with warm
welcome. The first day is called Phool-Bizu which dawned
with a bath in the river or nearby water source. There is
tradition of eating the Bizu-gula for children, i.e. to lend
them to take bath and thereafter children visit door to door
with basketful of corns to feed small and big animal. The
next day is called Mool-Bizu. It is a combining of the ritual
of looking after the welfare of elderly people in the
community and seeking their blessings. This is most
fascinating as women have more important role and the sprit
_ of women lies in it. Apart from rituals mentioned here, other
individual rites are also performed. For instance, young
women are provided to put on Khadi (breast covering) thus
being recognized to have attained full fledged youth. This
day is celebrated as non-meat day with various vegetable
items called Pajan-toon. There would be varieties of
preparations of ethnic cakes (Pithas). In the olden days the
festival was celebrated with a lot of hard liquors (doo-chunt)
and sweet fermented liquor (Jagara). It seems it has passed
by.
On the following day which is called Gocheya-Pocheya-
Bizu, elderly people are given bath by the young and receive
232 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
their blessings. Normally, all members of the family remain
at home and make pujas (prayers) to the Buddha and
Bhikkhus in the temples. The pious men and women spend
the days and night during the festival in the temples to edify
themselves by observing eight precepts (Asta sila). In this
eightfold path you will develop right understanding that will
lead you to samadhi. Chakma women are an entity in itself
in their traditional dress/costumes. The hand woven textile
making being followed traditionally which symbolizes their
culture. Women drape in their own home woven textile
dress - the lower part which covers from hip joint (waist) to
the bottom of the ankle is called Pinon and the breast
covering cloth is called Khadi. Different herbs are used for
dying the looms (yarn) with amazing colours. A variegated
combination-black (caution and careful), blue (confidence),
red (wisdom, emotional view) on the body and body part and
at the edge, a potent mixture of five colours (see at the photo
at annexure). The tribal weaving system has been written
in details by Aratrik Dev Burman, an expert in Fashion
technology!. Chakma women are fond of ornaments? whose
list is given below :
1. Nak Phul - Nose ornament
2. Kan Phul - Ear ornament
3. Bala Banguri - Wrist ornament
4, Taj-jur - Arm ornament
5. Thengat Kharu - Ankle ornament
6. Ajali - Neck ornament
7. Tenga-chara - Necklace with silver coins.
These are all made of silver getting depleted in the
modern era. The central fact of Chakma culture comes down
from Buddhist faith, religious ceremonies, rituals where
their identity lies, but women’s physical being prevents them
at times in joining as women are considered impure in
Therovada Buddhism. Their apprehension of culture and
Chakma Language and Script 233
behavior is primarily on Buddhist moral ethics of Dhamma
with no gender classification. Buddhism has been the
ongoing system in Sakyan Chakmas as in Tibetians but in
Tibet most significantly the representation is in feminity like
Avalokiteshvera, Manjusri and Tara. It has become purely
optional in ones own belief according to his contentions,
Some Therovadins are practicing Mahyanism and vice versa.
This is the historical past of the last two thousand and five
hundred fifty years. In the modern era of global society the
Chakmas are getting interwoven in different situations in
different parts of the world their common properties and
common ties are being transformed.
Notes on the Weaving Tradition of North Eastern
India
By Aratrik Dev Barman
The hand-woven textile traditions of the north eastern
region of India strongly reflect it’s culturally distinct tribal
identity, and bear more similarity to textiles from South
East Asia (in pattern, proportion and technique) than they
do to textiles from mainland India.
Mostly wraps (breastcloths, head cloths or sarongs), the
cloth is woven on a backstrap loom, one of the earliest loom
technologies known to man. The warp is laid out between
two bamboo sticks horizontal and parallel to each other. One
of these sticks is fastened to a pole, tree or a window grill,
while the other is attached to a belt that is worn by the
weaver around her back while seated on the ground. The
weaver leans back far enough to keep the threads taut, and
controls the tension of the warp by bending forwards or
backwards while weaving. This loom is also called a body
tension loom or a loin loom.
Though primitive, the backstrap loom is significant in
this region because it is perfectly suited to the tribal way of
life, and is a symbol of the people’s efforts to remain self
sufficient. It is light, mobile and can be installed anywhere.
234 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Made out of bamboo and wood that is locally available, it
costs little and can be rolled and stored away compactly
when not in use.
The earliest textiles woven on these looms were made
from handspun cotton and were coloured using natural
pigments made from plants, minerals and insects found in
the environment. They were always woven in strips that
ranged from 5 inches to approximately 22 inches, which is
a distinctive feature of the loin loom. Larger cloths were
achieved by joining two or more strips together. Today, acrylic
is the material of preference as it is cheaper, stronger and
affords a very bright palette of colours not found in cotton.
Most pieces are clearly structured in composition with
carefully proportioned border. Weaving on the backstrap loop
results in fabric that tends to be warp dominated and fairly
compact. As a result, bold striped patterns running in the
direction of the warp are a common feature. These stripes
are often interspersed with small motifs or horizontal weft
patterns woven using the supplementary weft technique.
Inter regional influences have resulted in a great diversity
of colour and pattern, and there exists a profusion of motifs
including human figures, abstract geometric shapes, flowers,
birds, animals and monsters etc. equally beautiful are the
plain dyed pieces with very narrow borders in a contrast
colour used for everyday clothing.
Examining these textiles closely would reveal their
significance in several ways. As bearers of an identity code,
each tribe had their own distinct set of colours and motifs
which could denote the age or marital status of the wearer.
Very often, these textiles assumed roles of heirloom objects
that were passed on from one generation to the next. They
were given as gifts to consolidate allegiances and social
relations. Silk as a material was introduced a means for the
nobility to establish their standing in the social hierarchy.
235
Chakma Language and Script
236 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Weaving in tribal societies remains exclusively a
woman’s activity. Tribal textiles were rarely bartered or sold.
The women wove to meet the needs of their families and
skills were passed on from mother to daughter. A history of
no organized trade perhaps explains why, even today, there
is no system that helps weavers reach wider markets.
References
1. Chakma alphabets.
2. Alphabets of the Tai Janguage akinness in curvic style
and forms.
3. A note of Suniti Kumar Chatterjee, National Professor
of India in Humanities on Chakma Language.
4. A note of Nalinakhsha Dutta on Chakma Language.
5-11. English translation of Bengali poem, lyric Rhyme
written by a most estimable Chakma poet
Pran Hari Talukder (a) “How Beautiful Our Hill Chatan,
(6) Power, (c) Simply Go Bye, (d) A World Peace, (e) What
is Wisdom and its Shape? (f) Rhyme.
Original Bangali hand writing adjoined.
A piece of writing (monograph) in Chakma script by
Kamal] Mukhi Talukder mother of captain (Dr.) Pramode
Bikash Talukder (1880 AD) adjoined.
12. The Hill Men of CHT, Osaka University, 1964.
13. Wearing tradition of N.E. India by Aritrik Dev Arman.
:
The Holocaust of Human Rights
Introduction
On 10 December 1948, the General Assembly of the
United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, the full text of which appears
in the following pages. Following this historic act, the
Assembly called upon all Member countries to publicize the
text_of the Declaration and “to cause it to be disseminated,
displayed, read and expounded principally in schools and
other educational institutions, without distinction based on
the political status of countries or territories”.
Kofi Annan
SECRETARY-GENERAL
All human beings are born with equal and inalienable
rights and fundamental freedoms.
The United Nations is committed to upholding,
promoting and protecting the human rights of every
individual. This commitment stems from the United Nations
Charter, which reaffirms the faith of the peoples of the world
in fundamental human rights and in the dignity and worth
of the human person.
In the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the
United Nations has stated in clear and simple terms the
rights which belong equally to every person.
These rights belong to you.
238 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
They are your rights.
Familiarize yourself with them. Help to promote and
defend them for yourself as weil as for your fellow human
beings.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Preamble
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the
equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human
family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the
world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have
resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the
conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which
human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and
freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the
highest aspiration of the common people,
Whereas: it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to
have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny
and oppression, that human rights should be protected by
the rule of law,
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of
friendly relations between nations,
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the
Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights,
in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the
equal rights of men and women and have determined to
promote social progress and better standards of life in larger .
freedom,
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to
achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the
promotion of universal respect for and observance of human
rights and fundamental freedoms,
The Holocaust of Human Rights 239
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and
freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization
of this pledge,
Now, Therefore,
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
THIS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION
OF HUMAN RIGHTS
As a common standard of achievement for all peoples and
all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ
of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall
strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these
rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national
and international, to secure their universal and effective
recognition and observance, both among the peoples of
Member States themselves and among the peoples of
territories under their jurisdiction.
Article I
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and
rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience
and should act towards one another in a spirit of
brotherhood.
Article 2
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set
forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind,
such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other
status.
Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis
of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the
country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it
be independent, trust, non-selfgoverning or under any other
limitation of sovereignty.
240 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Article 3
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of
person.
Article 4
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and
the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
Article 5
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman
or degrading treatment or punishment.
Article 6
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a
person before the law.
Article 7
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any
discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled
to equal protection against any discrimination in violation
of this Declaration and against any incitement to such
discrimination.
Article 8
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the
competent national tribunals for acts violating the
fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by
law. |
Article 9
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention
or exile.
Article 10
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public
hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the
determination of his rights and obligations and of any
criminal charge against him.
The Holocaust of Human Rights 94)
Article 11
(1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right
to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law
in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees
necessary for his defence.
(2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on
account of any act or omission which did not constitute a
penal offence, under national or international law, at the
time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be
imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the -
penal offence was committed.
Article 12
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with
his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks
upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to
the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
Article 13
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and
residence within the borders of each State.
(2) Everyone has the right to leave any country,
including his own, and to return to his country.
Article 14
(1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other
countries asylum from persecution. |
(2) This right may not be invoked in the case of
prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or
from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the
United Nations.
| Article 15
(1) Everyone has the right to a nationality.
(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality
nor denied the right to change his nationality.
Article 16
242 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
(1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation
due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry
and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as
to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
(2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and
full consent of the intending spouses.
(3) The family is the natural and fundamental group
unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and
the State. .
Article 17
(1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well
as in association with others.
(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
Article 18
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience
and religion; this right includes freedom to change his
religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community
with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion
or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
Article 19
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and
expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions
without interference and to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas through any media and regardless
of frontiers.
Article 20
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful
assembly and association.
(2) No one may be compelled to belong to an associa-tion.
The Holocaust of Human Rights | 249
Article 21
(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the
government of his country, directly or through freely chosen
representatives.
(2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public
service in his country.
(3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the
authority of government; this will shall be expressed in
periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal
and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by
equivalent free voting procedures.
Article 22
Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social
security and is entitled to realization, through national effort
and international co-operation and in accordance with the
organization and resources of each State, of the economic,
social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and
the free development of his personality.
Article 23
(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of
employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and
to protection against unemployment.
(2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the rhe
to equal pay for equal work.
(3) Everyone who works has the right to just and
favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family
an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented,
if necessary, by other means of social protection.
(4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade
unions for the protection of his interests.
244 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Article 24
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including
reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays
with pay.
Article 25
(1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living
adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his
family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care
and necessary social services, and the right to security in
the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood,
old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond
his control.
(2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care
and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of
wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
Article 26
(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall
be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages.
Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and
professional education shall be made generally available and
higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the
basis of merit.
(2) Education shall be directed to the full development
of the human personality and to the strengthening of
respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall
promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all
nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the
activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of
peace.
(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of
education that shall be given to their children.
The Holocaust of Human Rights 245
Article 27
(1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the
cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share
in scientific advancement and its benefits.
(2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral
and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary
or artistic production of which he is the author.
Article 28
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order
in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this
Declaration can be fully realized.
Article 29
(1) Everyone has duties to the community in which
alone the free and full development of his personality is
possible.
(2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone
shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined
by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and
respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting
the just requirements of morality, public order and the
general welfare in a democratic society.
(3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be
exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the
United Nations. :
Article 30
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as
implying for any State, group or person any right to engage
in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction
of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.
SWARAJ KAUSHAL
MEMBER OF PARLIMANET
RAJYA SABHA
246 _ Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
’ 8 Safdarjung Lane
New Delhi-110011
July 15 2003
Shri L.K. Advani
Deputy Prime Minister
Government of India
New Delhi
Respected Advani
I am pained to write that Arunachal Pradesh
Government has served eviction notices on Chakmas. A
report in the Hindustan Times dated 8th July 2003 also
Chakma is a long story of sufferings. They are striving
for survival of their identity between Islamic
fundamentalism and Christian missionaries campaign for
conversion. Sir, Chakmas are refugees not by choice. They
are victims of partition because our leaders exchanged
Chittagong Hill Tract for Ferozpur. While all others have
been rehabilitated Chakmas continue to be refugees in their
own country.
Today the world has woken up to the Chakma cause. Can
we not give them a permanent home in their own country?
Chakmas have struggled for hundreds of years. They
fought the British during freedom movement. They stood by
the country in our fight against insurgency. This is the least
that we can do for them.
Sir, while you ask the Arunachal government to
withdraw the eviction notices on the Chakmas, I request the
Government of India to undertake a comprehensive
programme for rehabilitation of the Chakmas in the country.
It is humanitarian cause and our national responsibility.
Profound regards
Swaraj Kaushal MP
ara at
SWa. 1isMe @ho ney al.com
Subsequent to the clauses of the NHRC mentioned
above a Public Interest Petition was filed by the
The Holocaust of Human Rights 247
NHRC in 1995 details of which follow in the pages
ahead.
IN THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA
ORIGINAL CIVIL JURISDICTION
WRIT PETITION (CIVIL) NO. 720 OF 1995
National Human Rights Commission........Petitioner
Versus
State of Arunachal Pradesh and Ant........Respondents
JUDGMENT
AHMADI, CJI
This public interest petition, being a writ petition under
Article 32 of the Constitution, has been filed by the National
Human Rights Commission (hereinafter called “NHRC”) and
seeks to enforce the rights, under Article 21 of the
Constitution, of about 65,000 Chakma/Hajong tribals
(hereinafter called “Chakmas”). It is alleged that these
Chakmas, settled mainly in the State of Arunachal Pradesh,
are being persecuted by sections of the citizens of Arunachal
Pradesh. The first respondent is the state of Arunachal
Pradesh and the second respondent is the Union of India.
The NHRC has been set up under the Protection of
Human Rights Act, 1993 (No. 10 of 1994). Section 18 of this
Act empowers the NHRC to approach this Court in
appropriate cases.
The factual matrix of the case may now be referred to..
A large number of Chakmas from erstwhile East Pakistan
(now Bangladesh) were displaced by the Kaptai Hydel Power
project in 1964. They had taken shelter in Assam and
Tripura. Most of them were settled in these States and
became Indian citizens in due course of time. Since a large
number of refugees had taken shelter in Assam, the State
government had expressed its inability to rehabilitate all of
them and requested assistance in this regard from certain
248 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
other States. Thereafter, in consultation with the erstwhile
NEFA administration (North East Frontier Agency—now
Arunachal Pradesh), about 4,012 Chakmas were settled in
parts of NEFA. They were also allotted some land in
consultation with local tribals. The Government of India had
also sanctioned rehabilitation assistance Rs. 4,200/- per
family. The present population of Chakmas in Arunachal
Pradesh is estimated to be around 65,000.
The issue of conferring citizenship on the Chakmas was
considered by the second respondent from time to time. The
Minister of State for Home Affairs has on several occasions
expressed the intention of the Arunachal Pradesh Students
Union (hereinafter called “AAPSU”) had issued “quit notices”
to all alleged foreigners, including the Chakmas, to leave
the State by September 30, 1995. The AAPSU had
threatened to use force if its demand was not acceded to.
The matter was treated as a formal complaint by the NHRC
and on October 28, 1994, it issued notices to the first
and the second respondents calling for their reports on the
issue.
On November 22, 1994, the Ministry of Home Affairs
sent a note to the petitioner reaffirming its intention of
granting citizenship to the Chakmas. It also pointed out that
Central Reserve Forces had been deployed in response to the
threat of the AAPSU and that the State Administration had
been directed to ensure the protection of the Chakmas. On
December 7, 1994, the NHRC directed the first and second
respondents to appraise it of the steps taken to protect the
Chakmas. This direction was ignored till September, 1995
despite the sending of reminders. On September 25, 1995,
the first respondent filed an interim reply and asked for time
of four weeks’ duration to file a supplementary report. The
first respondent did not, however, comply with its own
deadline.
On October 12, 1995 and again on October 28, 1995 the
The Holocaust of Human Rights 249
CCRC sent urgent petitions to the NHRC alleging immediate
threats to the lives of the Chakmas, On October 29, 1995,
the NHRC recorded a prima facie second respondent in this
regard. Groups of Chakmas have represented to the
petitioner that they have made representations for the grant
of citizenship under Section 5(1)(a) of the Citizenship Act,
1955 (hereinafter called “The Act”) before their local Deputy
Commissioners but no decision has been communicated to
them. In recent years relations between citizens of Arunachal
Pradesh and the Chakmas have deteriorated, and the latter
have complained that they are being subjected to repressive
measures with a view to forcibly expelling them from the
State of Arunachal Pradesh.
On September 9, 1994, the People’s Union for Civil
Liberties, Delhi brought this issue to the attention of the
NHRC which issued letters to the Chief Secretary, Arunachal
Pradesh and the Home Secretary, Government of India
making enquiries in this regard. On September 30, 1994,
the Chief Secretary of Arunachal Pradesh faxed a reply
stating that the situation was totally under control and
adequate police protection had been given to the Chakmas.
On October 15, 1994, the Committee for Citizenship
Rights of the Chakmas (hereinafter called “The CCRC”) filed
_ a representation with the NHRC complaining of the
persecution of the Chakmas. The petition contained a press
report carried in “The Telegraph” dated August 20 1994
stating that the All conclusion that the officers of the first
respondent were acting in coordination with the AAPSU with
a view to expelling the Chakmas from the State of Arunachal
Pradesh. The NHRC stated that since the first respondent
was delaying the matter, and since it had doubts as to
whether its own efforts would be sufficient to sustain the
Chakmas in their own habitat, it had decided to approach
this court to seek appropriate reliefs.
On November 2, 1995, this Court issued an interim order
directing the first respondent to ensue that the Chakmas
250 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
situated in its territory are not ousted by any coercive action,
not in accordance with law.
We may now refer to the stance of the Union of India,
the second respondent, on the issue. It has been pointed out
that, in 1964, pursuant to extensive discussions between the
Government of India and the NEFA administration. It was
decided to send the Chakmas for the purposes of their
resettlement to the territory of the present day Arunachal
Pradesh. The Chakmas have been residing in Arunachal
Pradesh for more than three decades, having developed
closes social, religious and economic ties. To uproot them at
this stage would be both impracticable and inhuman. Our
attention has been drawn to a Joint Statement issued by
the Prime Ministers of India and Bangladesh at New Delhi
in February, 1972, pursuant to which the Union
Government has conveyed to all the States concerned, it’s
decision to confer citizens on the Chakmas, in accordance
with Section 5(1) (a) of the Act. The second respondent
further states that the children of the Chakmas who were
born in India prior to the amendment of the Act in 1987,
would have legitimate claims to citizenship. According to the
Union of India, the first respondent has been expressing
reservations on this account. By not forwarding the
applications submitted by the Chakmas along with their
reports for grant of citizenship as required by Rule 9 of the
Citizenship Rules, 1955, the officers of the first respondent
are preventing the Union of India from considering the issue
of citizenship of the Chakmas. We are further informed that
the Union of India is actively considering the issue of
citizenship and has recommended to the first respondent that
it take all necessary steps for providing security to the
Chakmas. To this end, central para-military forces have been
made available for deployment in the strife-ridden areas.
The Union Government favours a dialogue between the
State Government, the Chakmas and all concerned within
the state to amicably resolve the issue or granting citizenship
to the Chakmas while also redressing the genuine grievances
The Holocaust of Human Rights 251
of the citizens of Arunachal Pradesh.
The first respondent, in its counter to the petition, has
contended before us that the allegatations of violation of
human rights are incorrect; that it has taken bona fide and
sincere steps towards providing the Chakmas with basic
amenities and has, to the best of its ability, protected their
- lives and properties. It is further contended that the issue
of citizenship of the Chakmas has been conclusively
determined by the decision of this Court in State of
Arunachal Pradesh VY. Khudram Chakma (1994 Supp. (1)
SCC 615 — hereinafter called “Khudiram’ Chakma’s case”).
It is therefore contended that since the Chakmas are
foreigners, they are not entitled to the protection of
fundamental rights except Article 21. This being so, the
authorities may at any time, ask the Chakmas to move. They
also have the right to ask the Chakmas to quit the state, if
they so desire. According to the first respondent, having lost
their case in this Court, the Chakmas have “raised a bogey
of violation of human rights.”
The first respondent has filed a counter to the stand
taken by the Union of India. The first respondent denies thai
the Union of India had sent the CRPF Battalions of its owr.
accord; according to it, they were sent pursuant to its letter
dated 20.9.1994 asking for assistance. It has also denied that
certain Chakmas were killed on account of economic
blockades effected by the AAPSU; according to it, these
casualties were the result of a malarial epidemic. The first
respondent reiterates that the sui generis Constitutional
position of the State debars it from permitting outsiders to
be settled within its territory, that it has limited resources
and that its economy is mainly dependent on the vagaries
of nature; and that it has no financial resources to tend to
the needs of the Chakmas having already spent
approximately Rs. 100 crores on their upkeep. It has also
been stated that the Union of India has refused to share its
financial responsibility for the upkeep of the Chakmas.
252 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Referring to the issue of grant of citizenship it is
submitted as follows:
“It is submitted that under the Citizenship Act, 1955 and
the Rules made thereunder a specific procedure is
provided for forwarding the application for grant of
citizenship. According to that after receiving the
application, the DC of the area makes necessary
enquiries about the antecedents of the applicant and
after getting a satisfactory report forwards the case to
the State Government which in turn forwards it to the
Central Government. It is submitted that on enquiry if
the report is adverse the DC would not forward it further.
It is submitted that the applications, if any, made in this
regard have already been disposed of after necessary
enquiry. There is no application pending before the DC.”
It may be pointed out that this stand of the first
respondent is in direct contravention of the stand adopted
by it in the representation dated September 25, 1995,
submitted by it to the NHRC where it had stated:
“The question of grant of citizenship entirely governed
by the Citizenship Act, 1955 and the Central
Government is the sole authority to grant citizenship.
The State Government has no jurisdiction in the matter.”
It is further submitted by the first respondent that under
the constitution, the State of Arunachal Pradesh enjoys a
special status and, bearing in mind its ethnicity, it has been
declared that it would be administered under part X of the
Constitution. That is the reason why laws and regulations
applicable during the British Regime continue to apply even
today. The settlement of Chakmas in large numbers in the
State would disturb its ethnic balance and destroy its culture
and identity. The special provision made in the Constitution
would be set at naught if the State’s tribal population is
allowed to be invaded by people from outside. The tribals,
therefore, consider Chakmas as a potential threat to their
tradition and culture and are therefore, keen that the latter
The Holocaust of Human Rights 953
do not entrench themselves in the State. Besides, the
financial resources of the State without Central assistance,
which is ordinarily not forthcoming, would throw a heavy
burden on the State which it would find well nigh impossible
to bear. In the circumstances, contends the first respondent,
it is unfair and unconstitutional to throw the burden of such
a large number of Chakmas on the State.
We are unable to accept the contention of the first
respondent that no threat exists to the life and liberty of the
Chakmas guaranteed by Article 21 of the Constitution, and
that it has taken adequate steps to ensure the protection of
the Chakmas. After handling the present matter for more
than a year, the NHRC recorded a prime facie finding that
the service of quit notices and their admitted enforcement
appeared to be supported by the officers of the first
respondent. The NHRC further held that the first respondent
had, on the one hand, delayed the disposal of the matter
by not furnishing the required response and had, on the
other hand, sought to enforce the eviction of the Chakmas
through its agencies. It is to be noted that, at no time, has
the first respondent sought to condemn the activities of the
AAPSU. However, the most damning facts against the first
respondent are to be found in the counter affidavit of the
second respondent. In the assessment of the Union of India,
the threat posed by the AAPSU was grave enough to warrant
the placing of two additional battalions of CRPF at the
disposal of the State Administration. Whether it was done
at the behest of the State Government or by the Union on
its own is of no consequence; the fact that it had become
necessary speaks for itself. The second respondent further
notes that after the expiry of the deadline of October 30,
1994, the AAPSU and other tribal student organization
continued to agitate and press for the expulsion of all
foreigners including the Chakmas. It was reported that the
AAPSU had started enforcing of economic blockades the in
refugee camps, which adversely affected the supply of
254 Genesis of I ndigenous Chakma Buddhists
rations, medical and essential facilities, etc, to the Chakmas.
Of course the State Government has denied the allegation,
but the independent inquiry of the NHRC shows otherwise.
The fact that the Chakmas were dying on account of the
blockade for want of medicines is an established fact. After
reports regarding lack of medical facilities and the spread
of malaria and dysentery in Chakma settlements were
received, the Union Government advised the first respondent
to ensure normal supplies of essential commodities to the
Chakma settlement. On September 20, 1995 the AAPSU,
once again, issued an ultimatum citing December 31, 1995
as the fresh deadline for the ousting of Chakmas. This is
yet another threat which the first respondent has not
indicated how it proposes to counter.
It is, therefore, clear that there exists a clear and present
danger to the lives and personal liberty of the Chakmas. In
Louis De Raedt v. Union of India [(1991) 3 SCC 554] and
Khudiram Chakma’s case this court, held that foreigners are
‘entitled to the protection of Article 21 of the Constitution.
The contention of the first respondent that the ruling of
this court in Khudiram Chakma’s case foreclosed the
consideration of the citizenship of Chakmas is misconceived.
The facts of that case reveal that the appellant and 56
families migrated to India in 1965 from erstwhile East
Pakistan and were lodged in the Government Refugee
Camp at Ledo. They were later shifted to another camp at
Miao. In 1966, the State Government drew up the Chakma
Resettlement Scheme for refugees and the Chakmas were
allotted lands in two villages. The appellant, however,
strayed out and secured land in another area by private
negotiations. The State questioned the legality of the said
transaction since, under the Regulations then in force, no
person other than a native of that District could acquire land
in it. Since there were complaints against the appellant and
others who had settled on this land, the State, by order
dated February 15, 1984, directed that they shift to the area
The Holocaust of Human Rights 255
earmarked for them. This order was challenged on the
ground that Chakmas who had settled there were citizens
of India and by seeking their forcible eviction, the State was
violating their fundamental rights and, in any case, the
order was arbitrary and illegal as violative of the principles
of natural justice. On the question of citizenship, they
invoked Section 6-A of the Act which, inter alia, provides that
all persons of Indiam origin who came before January 1,
1966 to Assam from territories included in Bangladesh
immediately before the commencement of the citizenship
(Amendment) Act, 1965, and who had been ordinarily
resident in Assam since their entry into Assam shall be
deemed to be citizens of India as from January 1, 1966.
Others who had come to Assam after that date and before
March 25, 1971, and had been ordinarily resident in Assam
since then and had been detected to be foreigners, could
register themselves. It will thus be seen that the appellant
and others claimed citizenship under this special provision
made pursuant to the Assam Accord. The High Court held
that the appellant and others did not fall under the said
category as they had stayed in Assam for a short period in
1964 and had strayed away therefrom in the area now
within the State of Arunachal Pradesh. On appeal, this
Court affirmed that view. It is, therefore, clear that in that
case, the Court was required to consider the claim of
citizenship based on the language of Section 6-A of the Act.
Thus, in Khudiram Chakma’s case, this court was seized of
a matter where 57 Chakma families were seeking to
challenge an order requiring them to vacate land bought
by them in direct contravention of clause 7 of the Bengal
Eastern Frontier Regulation, 1873. The issue of citizenship
was raised in a narrower context and was limited to Section
6-A(2) of the Act. The Court observed that the Chakmas in
that case, who were resident in Arunachal Pradesh, could
not avail of the benefit of section 6A of the Act which is a
special provision for the citizenship of persons covered by
the Assam Accord. In the present case, Chakmas are seeking
to obtain citizenship under Section 6(1)(a) of the Act, where
256 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
the considerations are entirely different. That section
provides for citizenship by registration. It says that the
prescribed authority may, on receipt of an application In that
behalf, register a person who is not a citizen of India, as a
citizen of India if he/she satisfies the conditions set out
therein. This provision is of general application and is not
limited to persons belonging to a certain group only as in
the case of Section 6-A. Section 5, therefore, can be invoked
by persons who are not citizens of India but are seeking
citizenship by registration. Such applications would have to
be in the form prescribed by part II of the Citizenship Rules,
1956 (hereinafter called “The Rules”). Under Rule 7, such
application has to be made to the Collector within whose
jurisdiction the applicant is ordinarily resident. Rule 8
describes the authority to register a person as a citizens of
India under Section 5(1) of the Act. It says that the authority
to register a person as a citizen of India shall be an officer
not below the rank of a Deputy Secretary to the Government
of India in the Ministry of Heme Affairs, and also includes
such officer as the Central Government may, by a
notification in the official Gazette, appoint and in any other
case falling under the Rules, any officer not below the Rank
of a Joint Secretary to the Government of India in the
Ministry of Home Affairs, and also includes such other officer
as the Central Government may, by notification in the official
Gazette, appoint. Rule 9 next enjoins the collector to
transmit every application received by him under Section
o(1)(a) to the Central Government through the State
Government or the Union Territory administration, as the
case may be, along with a report on matters set out in clauses
(a) to (e) thereof. Rule 10 provides for issuance of a
certificate to be granted to persons registered as citizens and
Rules 11 and 12 provide for maintenance of registers. These
are the relevant rules in regard to registration of persons
as citizens of India.
From what we have said hereinbefore, there is no doubt
that the Chakmas who migrated from East-Pakistan (now
Bangladesh) in 1964, first settled down in the State of
Assam and then shifted to areas which now fall within the
The Holocaust of Human Rights 957
State of Arunachal Pradesh. They have settled there since
the last about two and a half decades and have raised their
families in the said State. Their children have married and
they too have had children. Thus, a large number of them
were born in the State itself. Now it is proposed to uproot
them by force. The AAPSU has been giving out threats to
forcibly drive them out to the neighbouring State which in
turn is unwilling to accept them. The residents of the
neighbouring State have also threatened to kill them if they
try to enter their State. They are thus sandwiched between
two forces, each pushing in opposite direction which can only
hurt them. Faced with the prospect of annihilation the
NHRC was moved, which, finding it impossible to extend
protection to them, moved this court for certain reliefs.
By virtue of their long and prolonged stay in the State
the Chakmas who migrated to, and those born in the State,
seek citizenship under the Constitution read with Section 5
of the Act. We have already indicated earlier that if a person
satisfies the requirements of Section 5 of the Act, he/she can
be registered as a citizen of India. The procedure to be
followed in processing such requests has been outlined in
Part II of the Rules. We have adverted to the relevant rules
hereinbefore. According the these rules, the application for
registration has to be made in the prescribed form, duly
affirmed, to the collector within whose jurisdiction he resides.
After the application is so received, the authority to register
a person as a citizen of India, is vested in the officer named
under Rule 8 of the Rules. Under Rule 9, the Collector is
expected to every application under section 5(1)(a) of the Act
to transmit the Central Government. On a conjoint reading
of Rules 8 and 9. It becomes clear that the Collector has
merely to receive the application and forward it to the
Central Government. It is only the authority constituted
under Rule 8 which is empowered to register a persons as a
citizens of India. It follows that only that authority can refuse
to entertain an application made under Section 5 of the Act.
258 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Yet it is an admitted fact that after receipt of the application,
the Deputy Collector (DC) makes an enquiry and if the
report is adverse, the DC refuses to forward the applications;
in other words, he rejects the applications at the threshold
and does not forward it to the Central Government. The
grievance of the Central Government is that since the DC
does not forward the applications, it is not in a position to
take a decision whether or not to register the person as a
citizen of India. That is why it is said that the DC or
collector, who receives the application should be directed to
forward the same to the Central government to enable it to
decide the request on merits. It is abvious that by refusing
to forward the applications of the Chakmas to the Central
Government, the DC is failing in his duty and is also
preventing the Central Government from performing its duty
under the Act and the Rules.
We are country governed by the Rule of Law our
constitution confers certain rights on every human being and
certain other rights on citizens. Every person is entitled to
equality before the law and equal protection of the laws. So
also, no person can be deprived of his life or personal liberty
except according to procedure established by law. Thus the
State is bound to protect the life and liberty of every human-
being, be he a citizen or otherwise, and it cannot permit any
body or group of persons, e.g., the AAPSU, to threaten the
Chakmas to leave the State, failing which they would be
forced to do so. No State Government worth the name can
tolerate such threats by one group of persons to another
group of persons; it is duty bound to protect the threatened
group from such assaults and if it fails to do so, it will fail
to perform its constitutional as well as statutory obligations.
Those giving such threats would be liable to be dealt with
in accordance with law. The State Government must act
impartially and carry out its legal obligations to safeguard
the life, health and well-inhibited by local politics. Besides,
by refusing to forward their applications, the Chakmas are
The Holocaust of Human Rights 259
denied rights, constitutional and statutory, to be considered
for being registered as citizens of India.
In view of the above, we allow this petition and direct
the first and second respondents, by way of a writ of
mandamus, as under:
(1) the first respondent the State of Arunachal Pradesh,
shall ensure that the life and personal liberty of each
and every Chakma residing within the State shall
be protected and any attempt to forcibly evict or drive
them out of the State by organized groups, such as
the AAPSU, shall be repelled, if necessary by
requisitioning the service of para-military or police
force, and if additional forces are considered
necessary to carry out this direction, the first
respondent will request the secoytl respondent, the
Union of India, to provide such additional force, and
the second respondent shall provide such additional
force as in necessary to protect the lives and liberty
of the Chakmas;
(2) except in accordance with law, the Chakmas shall not
be evicted from their homes and shall not be denied
domestic life and comfort therein;
(3) the quit notices and ultimatums issued by the AAPSU
and any other groups which tantamount to threats
to the life and liberty of each and every Chakma
should be dealt with by the first respondent in
accordance with law:
(4) the application made for registration as citizen of
India by the Chakma or Chakmas under Section 5
of the Act, shall be entered in the register maintained
for the purpose and shall be forwarded by the
Collector or the DC-who receives them under the
relevant rule, with or without enquiry, as the case
may be, to the Central Government for its
consideration in accordance with law; even returned
applications shall be called back or fresh ones shall
260 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
be obtained from the concerned persons and shall be
processed and forwarded to the Central Government
for consideration;
(5) while the application of any individual Chakma is
pending consideration, the first respondent shall not
evict or remove the concerned person from his
occupation on the ground that he is not a citizen of
India until the competent authority has taken a
decision in that behalf: and
(6) the first respondent will pay to the petitioner cost of
this petition which we quantify at Rs. 10,000/- within
six weeks from today by depositing the same in the
office of the NHRC New Delhi.
The petition shall stand so disposed of.
Maver yaebe ds duchienmeusbveerescsucccsceth
(S.C. Sen)
New Delhi;
January 9, 1996
ELECTION COMMISION OF INDIA
No. 23/ARUN/2003 Dated: 03rd March, 2004
ORDER
The Government of India, during the period 1964-69,
settled some Chakma refugees from Bangladesh in
Arunachal Pradesh. Their population has increased
manifold. The Committee for Citizenship Rights of the
Chakmas has been demanding conferment of Indian
citizenship status and enrolment of their names in the
electoral rolls. The said Committee has taken the matter to
the National Human Rights Commission and the Supreme
Court of India. The Hon’ble Supreme Court vice order dated
09.01.1996 directed the Government of India and the State
Government of Arunachal Pradesh to settle the issue
The Holocaust of Human Rights 961
imperiously and further directed inter alia that the State
Government shall ensure that the life and personal liberty
of each and every Chakma residing within the State of
Arunachal Pradesh shall be protected and any attempt to
forcibly eviction drive them out of the State by any organized
group shall be repelled. In the mean time the High Court
of Delhi Order dated 28.9.2000 held that such of the
Chakmas who were born in India after their settlement in
the State of Arunachal Pradesh but before 01-07-1997
became citizens of India by birth under section 3)1) (a) of
the Citizenship Act even if their parents were not citizens
of the time of their birth.
The Election Commission is concerned with the
enrolment as electors purpose Chakmas who have acquired
Indian citizenship by birth as aforesaid are who ordinarily
resident in Arunachal Pradesh. Under the provisions of
Article 325 of the Constitution read with section 19 of the
Representation of the People Act, 1950 these Chakmas are
constitutionally entitled to be registered as electors in the
electoral rolls of the constituencies in which they are
ordinanly resident in Arunachal Pradesh. These
constituencies are 14 Dolmukh (ST), 46-Chowkham (ST), 49
Bordaamsa Diyam and 50 Miao (ST) assembly
constituencies.
THE STATESMAN
Published Simultaneously from CALCUTTA and
DELHI
JUNE 12, 1989
Vol. CXXIII No. 257680
VICTIMS OF PARTITION
Ironically, the first attempt made by the Bangladesh
Government to grant a measure of autonomy to the
Chakmas and other tribes of the Chittagong Hill Tracts has
led to a worsening of the situation, with thousands of
refugees once again pouring into India to escape persecution
in their own homeland. The fresh influx has started in the
262 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
wake of yet another round of killings and retaliatory attacks
in which the Buddhist tribals and Bangladeshi settlers, who
are Muslims, have been involved. The latest outbreak started
with the murder of a settler who was chairman of a local
committee, as well as seven others, said to be businessmen,
in the Rangamati area. Blaming the underground tribal
organization, the Shanti Bahini, for the attack, the settlers
went on the rampage, killing seven tnbals and injuring more
than 50 others. Savage clashes of this kind have been a
feature of the area ever since leaders like Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman and General Ziaur Rahman encouraged
Bangladeshis to move into the area so as to relieve the
pressure on land erstwhile in the country and also, perhaps,
to counter the threat of recession by tribals who had opted
for India in 1947 and were pushed into erstwhile East
Pakistan against their will.
Unlike its predecessors, the Ershad Government seems
to have realized that the policy of harassing the Chakmas
has to be changed, presumably because of the bad name
Dhaka has been earning internationally because of the
unending flow of refugees over the border. Apparently taking
a leaf from India’s Constitutional provision for setting up
autonomous councils for ethnic minorities, the Bangladesh
government prepared legislation to establish three such
councils in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. But although the date
for holding elections is drawing near there is no sign that
the Chakmas have agreed to the government’s plan. Even
Dhaka's offer of amnesty to the Shanti Bahini does not seem
to have been accepted.
Clearly, the long years of repression have made the
Chakmas so bitter and mistrustful of the government that
they are unwilling to believe that it may have undergone a
change of heart. The recent bloodshed—the latest in a series
of killings of tribals—must also have strengthened their
misgivings. Nor, perhaps, are the tribals fully convinced that
the proposed councils will protect their interests, given the
Government's earlier blatant policy of persecution. Their fear
The Holocaust of Human Rights 963
apparently is that no matter what the law may prescribe,
the gradual infiltration of people from elsewhere in the
country will continue, and not only will their land be taken
away from them but their distinctive way of life will also be
under severe pressure. As it is, with more than 50,000
Chakmas living in refugee camps in Tripura, the future of
the entire community on both sides of the border looks bleak,
especially when a revival of the Hill Tract Regulations of
1900, which prohibited the entry of outsiders into the area,
is now thought to be out of the question. For the hapless
Buddhist tribals, caught in the cross-fire between two larger
religious communities, the trauma of partition seems to be
never-ending.
This was delivered by Sakya Talukdar at the annual
conference, Amida Trust in London on April, 2003. The plight
of the Chakmas a healing community.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
Distinguished participants and guests,
First of all, I must express my deep indebtedness to the
Amida Community for their best efforts to bring me up at
this workshop, without which I would not have been here
in the midst of you. It gives me an abounding feeling of
friendship of happiness to be with you all here. I thank you
all for taking interest in this workshop.
The purpose of my coming over here is to present a
picture of the present setting of the ardent ethnic Chakma
Bhuddhist, in the North-East India in the background of
their sanguinary disposition at their homeland, Chittagong
Hill Tracts, since the partition of the Indian subcontinent
in 1947. The continuous Govt. sponsored migration of plain
Muslims to the Hill Tracts changed the demographic profile
of CHT with 98% ethnic Buddhists to 50% at present. This
was the origin of the history of their displacement and
migration to India and their present condition/situation is
still a very complex and precarious one. A paper “The Plight
of the Chakmas’ is already in your hand. The truncated
faltering history of Chakmas need no further elaboration.
264 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
The uprooted Chakmas are still struggling hard to stay
afloat in life. There might come some opportune time/
moment for reviving them for greater cause in the future.
The transience of everything is underlying core message in
Buddhism. They hope to overcome this critical and crucial
period sooner or later.
So, as with the time, there are people who have come
up with various welfare programmes for improving the
condition of the Chakmas who are badly off. The peoples
group working on it is called “Friendly Society” with its
headquarters at Guwahati, the gateway of the North-East
India. Similarly, there is an organization by name “The
Chakma Buddhist Foundation” with its headquarter at
Bodhgaya, the world heritage centre, I know precisely, they
are the parts of the whole who have initiated various welfare
projects for the hapless ethnic Buddhists.
India’s population (Religion wise)
SLNo. Name Percen- In In
tage Million crore
1. Hindu 82% 820 §2
2. Muslim 12% 120 12
3. Christian 2.0% 25 2.5
4. Sikh 2.0% 20 2.0
5. Buddhist+Jain+Others 1.5% 15 1.5
Total | 100% 1000 100
Note: The ethnic tribal Buddhist population (excluding Tibetan) in
India is 0.5 million only.
The list of papers:
1. The plight of the Chakmas.
2. The other writings - 18 nos.
- 3. Friendly Society’s present work
I hope this workshop will be worth of your notice. I
thank you all from the core of my heart for having come to .
The Holocaust of Human Rights 265
this workshop.
Sakya Talukdar
Annual conference (Amida Trust), April, 03, London.
The Plight of the Chakmas A healing community
By Sakya Talukdar
The Racial Name
In the 18" century, the British Colonial rule for the first
time described the indigenous hill people in the Chittagong
hill tracts by the term ‘Chakma’. But they (the indigenous
hill people) keep calling themselves as “Changma”. The
variant spelling (Chakma) has become the officially accepted
term referring to the hill people of CHT and since then they
have become well known by this term.
Where they Come From
Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) had provided a safe heaven
to Chakmas by its own geography and natural set up. As
knowledge goes, they were the earliest setters here.
Genealogically, they claim their origin from “Sakya”
ancestry in which Gautam Buddha was born, in the
kingdom called “Champak Nagar”. It has remained
unidentified because there is more than one place by the
name Champak Nagar both in India and Mayanmar. So the
issue of their origin remained epigrammatic and it is wanting
more in details. History has recorded that the Sakya clan
was internally and externally displaced and uprooted from
their original kingdom (Kipalavastu) and as well as their
other kingdoms in the course of history. They took to
eastward journey and established kingdoms one after
another till reaching at Dinnyawadi and Babootong in
Arakan Yoma bordering with CHT where Chakmas live. The
English spelling of Chakma has different phonetics spelling
in Myanmar language which is as Tsakma (ts is pronounced
as ch). It is similar to the river spelling Tsangpo in Tibet
which is known as Brahmaputra in India. A very akin group
266 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
of people of Chakmas is living in Myanmar which is known
to be Doingnak and Tungjaingya. According to some
historian there are two groups of Chakmas one Annakya
(those who had migrated to CHT from Myanmar) and two
Rowyangya (those who remained in Arakan).
For many centuries the inhospitable mountain tracks
from CHT to Arakan Yoma remained untraversed and
remained unexposed and unknown to people. At that time
people swamped along the mountain streams and reached
the river Matamuri and established a kingdom at
Alikandam, which is now in the Chittagong Division outside
the Jurisdiction of CHT, bordering with Arakan. Under the
pressure of the colonial British rule the Chakma Chief had
to shift his head quarters at Rangamati inside CHT in 1860
AD. In their trail of long journey their knowledge of
education became almost erased (their scripts are now a
‘piece of item’s for the museums!). In the absence of any
written transcription, there is no knowledge of the ancient
past. The Chakma’s Gengkhuli singers (ballad singers) alight
the glorious past of theirs through the songs, which are very
popular among them.
The Chakmas are divided into 10 (ten) groups:
1. “Phwa-ho”
2. “Tai-yo"
. “Ang-ngu”
. “Bor-ua”
. “Bung-ngu”
“Zotia”™
“Bu-se-ke”
“Undu”
10. “Ang-ngu”
CM AAA w
The Holocaust of Human Rights 267
They are further divided into forty (40) sub-clans (gajas).
Present Habitation
CHT emerged as a majority Chakma inhabited land, the
rest were also Mongoloid races of very akin tribe till the mid
of 20th century. But they had sunk into deep despair after
the Indian sub-continent got independence from the British
in 1947. In the process of the creation of the separate nations
for the Muslims and Hindus, the control over CHT got
transferred to the Muslims. In the throes of this process
many had fled or were driven away from CHT, and now
many of them had taken shelter in the adjoining countries
in India and Myanmar. The Chakmas, therefore, are
bisected into three countries viz. Bangladesh, Myanmar and
India which are religiously Islamic, Buddhist, and secular
respectively. The Chakmas in India are committed to
pluralism.
Racial Mark
It is worthy to note that a “Mongolian spot” (a deeply
pigmented patch, commonly present in the sacral region) is
noticed in the babies (on birth) of Chakma parents. The
mark gradually disappears with age. They possess most of
the characteristic marks associated with Mongoloids viz. a
short medium size in structure with hairs often straight and
yellowish in colour.
According to some historian, the Sakya clan belonged to
the Mongolian race and presently a number of Mongolian
groups in Nepal, Myanmar, Bangladesh and India claim to
be from the Sakya clan. A research study is being carried
out on the origin of human relationship among those who
claim common heritage with the Sakya race. This hypothesis
is being studied using genetic variation on Y-chromosome by
the University College of London/University College London
Hospital Committees on the ethics of Human Research
268 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
(Study number 99/0196).
Dress
The distinguished art of weaving on loin loom is an
established Chakma woman's home learning skill. Awoman
is not seen to be suitable for a bride till she becomes skillful
in weaving. In the rural Chakma society, the women exhibit
lot of interested in weaving. Chakmas harvest cotton
abundantly in their “Jhums” (primitive slash and burning
method of cultivation), which help in a way to make them
self reliant in their attires and other clothing viz. towels, bed
sheets etc. The women dress is known by the name of
“Khadi” and “Penon”. It is the testifying evidence of the
Chakma community which is artful with six colours (black,
white, red, yellow, blue and green). A set of women’s dress
consists of three pieces viz. khadi (adult normal size 56 inch
x 40 inch) for wrapping waist to the bottom of the toes. The
name of their headgear is “Khobong”, but it is no more in
akma alphabets (scripts) signify the imprint mark
of its origin iach is akin to Myanmar—Thai scripts. It seems
there is no written literature in the Chakma language. The
language was not standardized with syntax, phonology,
grammar etc, until now. So it has been on its own is a
Linguafranca. There are many intrinsic characters of words
in the Chakma language which remained unexplained and
unknown. The Chakmas had to forgo their language and
script in favour of Bengali language which was at the time
the court language under the British colonial rule.
They are now in the puzzling diversity of languages. The
community which did not have any script before the coming
of the British rule is now having the opportunity to take
pride of their written languages mainly because of the
The Holocausi of Human Rights 269
earlier Christian missionaries. Thanks to the change of
political fortunes of the Chakmas.
Women
Women are strong and equal partners to males in the
Chakma society. They offer help to their male members in
all indoor and outdoor household works, in tilling lands and
rearing the domesticated animals. They are fond of wearing
jewelry and ornaments. They are also decorative by nature.
Out of superstition they do not eat together with the male
members of the family. They feel it is their prerogative to
see that male members are fed first before the women take
their meal. The men have to pay price to the bride at the
time of marriage.
Now talking about Chakma women, I remember an
amazing Chinese philosophy : “yin and yang” (yin is the
female principle, characterized as dark and negative, while
yang the male principle, being light and positive). Such
superstitions are prevalent among the women in the
Chakma society and because of this they are not admitted
in the monasticism. It seems Theroveda Buddhist in India
has not yet admitted women in monkhood as yet. Therefore,
though the Chakma women have yearning for the religious
Buddhist life-on the path of Nirvana, they only get
initiations to become a devotee with 8 fold path (precepts).
They become bald headed and wear seamless white dress
or yellow coloured dress and keep living in the monastery,
if they wish to. But as the society (women world) is now
pushing for greater opportunity for women, many hurdles
of the past would perhaps soon be over in the case of
Chakma women. Women are being treated equal to men
even in spirituality.
Original Dwelling House
The Chakma houses are squarely built with bamboo with
a “machan”, a bamboo woven platform some six feet above
the ground. They are usually built on the bend of a river
270 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
near the streams or on the mountain valleys or hills slopes
where there is abundance of water. The water networks used
to be the life line for their movement from one house to
another or from one village to another. The normal Chakma
house is divided into compartments and the requirements
of the married members of the family are the first to be
attended to. In the event of several families living together
the rooms are apportioned in order of seniority. For instance,
in a family of in which three members are married, the
house will be divided by mat walls into four compartments.
The outer one is reserved for the unmarried male members
or for the use of visitor and is called “Pinagudi”, the next
apartment will go to the eldest male representative of the
family with his wife, and the third room will be given to the
youngest married member. Each room averages fifteen feet
in length, including the “ochalen” (back verandah), which
is from five to seven feet in breadth. When laying out the
compartments, the house is divided breadth wise, taking the
center or ridge of pole of the front of the house is a
“verandah” (alley way) which is divided into two by a mat
partition for the use of the males and females respectively.
In front of it, the bamboo “machan” (raised platform) used
for various household purposes of domestic use. One has to
climb up through a “sang—u” (steps dug out on a wooden
log) on the “ejor” and then through alley way to the
apartments.
Elders
The old age is also the golden age for the older Chakmas
in the society. All the older ones in the family are either old
‘dear dad’ or ‘grand dad’. All the family activities are pivoting
to the old ones. The respectability to the old ones is an
important part in the social system. A spending Indian new
year celebration is called “Biju” in Chakma, where in a
traditional way the old ones are respected with various
offerings. They become the custodian of the customary social
The Holocaust of Human Rights 271
laws and settle all social disputes. They also devote their time
in homework.
Children
Earlier the children used to spend their energy and
enthusiasm in the field works with the elders. In the present
generation they are attending schools..But the education
they are undergoing is substandard when compared to the
town schools. So they are not able to get the fruit of their
education. They are also getting distanced from the nature
of working in the rural forest areas and this is leading them
into frustration. Despite all these setbacks, they have in
them an inner desire for learning.
Society
The Chakma society orignated in the geographical
condition of CHT. With the movement of its people it has
spread over to different area. With their mutual help and
co-operation, strong togetherness, they have managed to
pursue their language and their common way of life. The
Chakma society, therefore, is an organization of individuals
In a particular geographical area/condition in the present
time. But in general, in respect of involvement from bottom
in the birth and growth till death it undergoes through the
traditional social structural laws relating to marriage, birth,
death, religious ceremonies, social offences and other
religious festivals which are not being discussed here fully.
To give some idea of their distinctiveness of their traditional
characteristics a few social laws are being drawn below:
1. Traditionally, their minds have become conditioned
to live freely and not to carry out any menial job of
others like the carrying of shoes of others. They are
averse in doing lower jobs like sweeper, barber,
cobbler etc.
2. Beating of drums in public is prohibited (except the
war drums).
3. The social punishments are as follows:
272 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
(a) “Jarimana”: Cash fine
(b) “Muchilika”: Bond agreement
(c) “Marpeet” : Physical punishment
(d) “Jendhera”: In this the offender’s hair on the
head are cut into three parts and fowl is hung
on the neck and a bamboo is kept on their head
(e) “Vandala” : In this, the offender is to offer food
with reverence to all village elders.
By tradition, a temporary hut is made outside the house
whenever a pregnant woman is to deliver a baby. Before
getting into the house the mother and the baby are to be
purified through some rituals.
The Post Partition Grimness
For providing independence to the Hindu and Muslims
of the Indian sub-continent the colonial British rule divided
India for the creation of Hindustan and Pakistan on the
basis of areas dominated by Hindus and Muslims, but it
unwittingly added CHT with 98 p.c ethnic Buddhists to
Pakistan arbitrarily, violating the partition rule. The Muslim
political power wanted CHT for its strategic geographical
importance but did not want its non-Muslim people, as they
feared insecure with them. So nothing satisfied them till the
Muslims outnumbered the locals. The ethnic tribal Buddhist
had no inklings what was in store for them with the Muslim
political power/Muslim country. The Pakistani government
began to take away all their land rights and also
systematically planned to uproot them from CHT. The
government actions began as follows:
(1) Withdrawal of the CHT regulations of 1900 AD to
make way to outsiders to move into it;
(2) The destruction of forest natural resources and
changing of ecology, which was the supporting tribal
economy;
(3) Construction of a dam of hydro-electric project in
The Holocaust of Human Rights 973
CHT, that uprooted a large number of Chakmas from
their ancestral homes:
(4) Fundamentalist powerful Islamic organizations
began their activities to bring the Buddhists into the
fold of Islam;
(5) The security forces and terror crazed Muslims were
let loose in CHT and they began to rough on to the
Buddhists.
What shall they do? What can they do? The government
was not at all satisfying with all their moves to live happily
in harmony with the majority Muslims. They made several
attempts to strive out a deal with the successive governments
to clear all the fears of the government, but yielded no
results.
As a result, an insurgency movement broke out in CHT
and many began floundering in the intimidating darkness.
The Buddhists began to live under the shadow of insecurity
and unhappiness due to large number of killing, missing of
people, physical torture, human violation of all ages of both
male and female (see the annexure at page “A”). The
Buddhists are now having a narrow existence of living.
In comparison to the Chakmas in Bangladesh, the
Chakmas in India are not confronting any such adversities,
but they are yet to walk a very long way to before getting
settled in India. Even after being born in India, many of
them are being denied with citizenship right. Therefore, a
great fear runs through them especially those who are in
Arunachal Pradesh (a province in the north-east India). On
the whole many of them had already established themselves
in India, but a vast group of them in Assam could not stand
up on their feet as they were living in the remote areas in
the distant hills.
Natural Philosophy and Religion
From the very early time, the most regarded divine
worshiping ceremony performed by Chakmas is called
“Burpara” which signifies cleansing and purifying from all
274 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
evils, sprits, curses, illness, misfortunes, and all kind of odds.
It is performed by “ooza” (village clergy), on the belief that
whatever happens in life it is influenced by the cosmic forces
from the universe. From the very earliest time, religion was
regarded as divine power (Shakti) which signifies
protectivity or destructivity. They feel that it is the most
beneficent act which is practiced by them.
How they have been connected with Buddhism? According
to Dr. Farchammer, “There are old Buddhist tradition among
the Talaings and Arakanese, traditions which could not have
originated with the southern Buddhist school, but are the
remnants of the old Northern Buddhism which reached
Arakan from the Ganges when India was mainly Buddhist;
they form a substratum cropping up here and there
apparently without any connection; its centre is the
Mahamuni pagoda, the most important remains of ancient
Buddhism in Burma, antedating in this province both
Brahmanism and the Buddhism of the southern school.”
The ancient religious book of Chakmas is called
“Agartara” which has 28 parts viz. Agartara, Malem Tara,
Sadenggiri Tara, Annicha Tara, Sree Mangal Tara, Dosa
Paramai Tara, Bora Kuruk Tara, Trikundu Tara, Talik
Shastra Tara, Aristama Tara, Raken Ful Tara, Sahes Ful
Tara, Jyon Dharam Tara, Anjna Tara, Pudum Ful Tara,
Angra Sutra Tara, Fakira Tara, Sakya Tara, Suba Dijiya
Tara, Sarak Dham Tara, Raja Hora Tara, Sak Suttam Tara,
Buddha Ful Tara, Chaneng Ful Tara and Arinama Tara.
These Taras are not transcripted in their language, so
it is no more found in them. But they still carry it from
mouth to mouth as their old religious books. The Taras were
the hand of ‘Roul or Ari’ the earlier Buddhist monks in the
distant hills. Some disreputably call them as corrupt monks.
In the Mahayana Tara is a personification of Nirvana, which
identifies with ‘shakti’ or female principle. In otherwise, Tara
ee ee
The Holocaust of Human Rights 275
is a manifestation of the wisdom, compassion, love and in
particular, the skill activity of all enlightened beings.
Around 12 AD Theravada Buddhism made an edge over
the Mahayana in this region and now the Chakmas whose
religious emancipation shaped from Theroveda Buddhism
from last many centuries. History records that around 272
BC, a Prince U. Cancha Uparaja from magadha came and
lived in Arakan as a monk. The Chakmas claim their
relationship with the rulers of Kapilavstu.
Healing Community
Buddhism postulates that human life in ‘Samsara’
(worldly life) begins in ‘dukka’ (suffering), and it starts a ~
reversible journey towards death, at the very moment when
it is conceived in mother’s womb. In Buddhism, it is the
‘upadana’ (attachment) that leads to becoming (rebirth). No
. attachment is permanent—impermanence is ‘dukkha’. The
Buddha taught and preached the way to combat this
“dukkha” (illness); healing. The Buddhist healing means
keeping the body and mind in blissfulness and pure through
all our actions that results the cause and effect. Healing is
always discharged through “health care” and “mental care’.
In Buddhist healing, mind has an overriding power to
_ combat and restoring health.
Now, want to pick up the subject that left of earlier in
(The plight of Chakmas) part one. It passes belief, how 98
percent ethnic majority Buddhist land (CHT) that could turn
into Muslim majority in the last half a century. Imagine the
unusual frightening way the ethnic Buddhist people had to
pass on to escape from killing and cruelty! Many of them
had to flee away from their ancestral homes. Till now, a
number of them are yet a dejected band of people moving
around in distant mountains in many provinces in the
north-east region. Many of them could not sustain life and
had to pass away in the cruel hands of the mighty. It reminds
me of the historic event, when the king Bimbasra of
Magadha was imprisoned and left to die without food by his
276 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
own son Ajatasatru, the queen Veidehi made entreaty to
Buddha. It was in response to her entreaties that Buddha
Sakyamuni preached the meditation sutra, which teaches
a series of sixteen visualization (of Amitava Buddha, the
pure land) leading to re-birth her in the land of ultimate
bliss.
In the second place, I would like to cite the following
teaching of non-violence and abstention from killing, some
students and staff of ven. Thich Nhat Hanh uttered at a
function their commitments, in this way:
“Now once again, we solemnly promise never to hate
those who kill us, above all never to use violence to answer
violence, even if the antagonists see us as enemies and kill
until they annihilate us. We re-call our pledge that people,
no matter what their origins, never are enemies—Help us
to keep steadily this non-violent mind in our social work by
love that asks nothing in return.”
Buddha has propounded the doctrine of non-violence,
that is the beginning of letting peace into practice in mind,
that results in healing of suffering in mind-body, which
comprises of four viz earth element (skin, hair, nail, teeth,
bone and flesh, etc), liquid element (blood saliva, urine etc),
fire element (body heat), and wind element (breathing
movement). The four elements composed together is
“sankara” (body). The body has six sense organs viz eyes,
nose, tongue, body and mind. The interaction of all these
senses is the central power of Buddhist healing. This also
benefits the physical health. It is being universally accepted
in all researches.
Heart is the hollow muscular organ of mind which by
its rhythmic contraction and relaxation drives the blood
round the vascular system. The conditioning of mind results
in heart especially love and anger (positive and negative).
The positivity comes with the compassion of Buddha (in
The Holocaust of Human Rights 277
Theroveda). In Mahayana it is emanation of the Amitava
Buddha and a co-resident of the western paradise
“Avolokiteshvara” — the Bodhisattava of compassion—the lord
who looks down with loving care for humanity. Below is
quoted from his Holiness,The Dalai Lama:
“Whether one believes in religion or not,
and whether one believes in re-birth or not,
there is not anyone who does not appreciate,
Kindness and compassion.”
Due to its long existence in the indigenous Chakma
community, Buddhism has been an indispensable and
inseparable part in their life from time immemorial. In every
village whether small or big there would at least be one
monastery for daily services to Buddha. It is maintained with
the support of the villagers themselves without any
assistance from outside. The monastery is usually left under
the care of a Bikkhu who is selected by the villagers for a
certain spell of time on a yearly basis. In the rural areas,
the monks are usually lacking in higher education, which
is not financially affordable to them. They are also lacking
in opportunities to gain spiritual training from learned monk
teachers. Many young monks are very keen to get higher
religious education, so that they could participate in the
bigger religious ceremonies and discussions. The profound
Buddhist knowledge is the central path of healing in
Buddhism.
I would now like to mention a great Chakma Buddhist
Bhikkhu who has become widely known by the name
“BANA BHANTE” (forest monk). He seems to have attained
Arahathood according to the devotees. His original name is
Sadhana Nanda. He was born in a poor family and did not
Appendix 1
Incidents | Massacres Killed Injured/raped.
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
278
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282 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Bangladesh. A great number of people gather daily to hear
his sermons and benefit from the fruits of his enlightenment.
In essence, healing in Buddhism comes by way of self
discipline and spiritual knowledge.
“I vow that when my life approaching its end
All obstructions will be swept away;
I will see Amitava Buddha,
And be born in his land of Ultimate Bliss.
When reborn in the Western Land.
I will perfect and completely fulfill
Without exception these Great Vows,
To delight and benefit all beings.”
—Avatamsaka Sutra
ETHNIC BUDDHISTS IN ASSAM
Last June, I was asked to go early on a Sunday morning
to Heathrow to meet an Amida visitor from Assam, in north
east India. His plane arrived even earlier and I wondered
how on earth we would find each other, when he did not
even know I existed, never mind that I was due to meet him!
Near the Information Desk we saw each other, and somehow,
perhaps the questioning looks on our faces, we knew. This
was Sakya Talukdar, who had come across David Brazier
and the Amida Trust via the Internet.
I came to know Sakya as a friend over the next six
weeks as he stayed with me several times. The aim had been
for him to go to Amida France, but the visa requirements
defeated everyone. In the meantime, Sakya met quite a few
Amida members in London and in Newcastle, and spent a
week at Throssle monastery.
Sakya was keen to come to Europe to meet Amida
members because of his project to help the “ethnic
Buddhists” in his part of the world. The foothills of the
The Holocaust of Human Rights 283
Himalayas and the mountain river valleys are today
inhabited by numerous tribes in different countries—India,
Bangladesh and Myanmar. They trace their ancestry from
Sakya clan in which it is thought Buddha was born more
than 2500 years ago. They are the earliest Buddhists ever
known in the history of South East Asia.
Over the centuries there has been a lot of movement of
peoples and tribes, and in this century the changed status
and boundaries of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh have
added tension and conflict to the area. This has particularly
affected tribes with Buddhist culture as they do not fit into
the dominant Hindu, Muslim or Christian area, and they
are becoming dispossessed peoples. Some of those who have
settled in Guwahati, the capital of Assam, have formed The -
Friendly Society, a not-for-profit social organization, to help
to strengthen their sense of culture and identity.
One of their projects is to see if they can throw light on
their ancestral history with the help of modern genetic
anthropological studies. It so happens that I have a strong
interest in this area of work because of my own research
into the nature of humanity as a species and as a complex
evolving organism. I was able to find a contact in University
College London (UCL), Dr. Mark Thomas, who on being»
introduced to Sakya, immediately recruited him as the first
sample for a research project covering the “ethnic” Buddhist
tribes! Sakya went home armed with 100 sample kits, and
instruction on how to record the correct anthropological
information for the samples. I am a go-between now in this
research project and will be meeting Dr. Thomas and his
colleagues soon.
Little did I know what would emerge from this
unexpected request to meet a visitor at Heathrow! Anyone
who is interested in understanding more about this
fascinating area of human genetic research could look at the
very readable book The Language of Genetics by Steve
Jones. He was the author of some excellent TV programmes
284 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
a few years ago on the same subject (which is what drew
my attention to it all), and the head of the UCL department
where Dr. Thomas works. I would be glad to hear from any
other Amida member with an interest in this subject and
Sakya’s project.
This was writien for Living Buddhism the Amida Trust
Journal in the summer of 1999 by Eileen Conn.
Epilogue Conclusion
The Contemporary World
According to Joan Halifax Roshi, Head Teacher, Upaya
Zen Center, Santa Fe, New Mexico “Today, more than any
other time in human history we are living in a king of
intimacy that can destroy or liberate. Our weapons can find
their targets within minutes, our diseases can spread like a
wild fire in a dry forest, and our delusions can contaminate
the minds of millions instantaneously through the media”.
We are living in the word of nervous nuclear arms race,
injustice, violence, racial intolerance, hatred, greed,
corruptions and delusions. We are just being the victims of
all these intolerances and overbearing nervousness. They
is why we are unable to live in harmony with our fellow
beings and therefore no happiness. Our mind and thoughts
are full of agony when we come to know how our leaders
are creating unrest and troubles for their self interest.
Humanity in the modern world is living in hard shell in the
heart of those in worlds super power (internationally
powerful);
1. China and India superpower in human resources;
2. G—20 countries, worlds most economically developed
superpowers;
3. Nuclear power developed countries;
4. The 3° World (Developing countries);
5. The 4th World (indigenous people of the world).
1. Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935) was recognised
extraordinary spiritual leader since the age of two,
His Holiness Dalai Lama in Tibet, now in exile in
India. |
2. Raja Tridiv Roy (b. 1933) Chakma chief now im self
exile (by choice) in Pakistan.
286 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
As gleaned from histo: y they descend from the same
ethnic line — the Scythins: indigenous people of Tibet and
Hill Tracts of Chittagong in Bangladesh. Their subjects faced
holocaust turning their peace living area into a terror ridden
region. They rise to the occasion to alleviate suffering of the
natives, but having no effect. His Holiness the Dalai Lama
was awarded the ‘Noble Prize for peace’ in 1989. The
Chakma chief, Tridiv Roy was awarded ‘Stalwarts of
Pakistan award’ in 1999. both of them worked hard
assiduously to convince the world leaders to understand the
sensibility of the situation but in the objective world the
earning was loving kindness and compassion with some
dole. But the grip of their suffering was not relaxed. The
infliction of pain continued unending. The suffering people
are trying to resist occasionally which is being highlighted
in the media coverage and propaganda compaign. However,
their suffering remains undiminished. Both Tibetans and
Chakmas had to flee away from their homeland and became
landless. The Tibetan received treatment as protectorate from
India, but Chakma are not treated in alliance to redress their
sufferings. The Tibetans are able to gain publicity of would
media for their fullness of Bodhisattva ideology universally,
while Chakmas are yet to step up on this. No doubt they
are getting set to those ideas, as there seems to be no political
willingness to stop infliction of pain to indigenous people
Undoubtedly, the indigenous people are the victims of exploit
by the majority by breaking up their home and sub-dividing
them. They are faced with major threat in all respects of
progress and not being elevated at'equal level of the
majority. They are being left wayside. As for example, the
availability of natural water has become obsolete. Mineral
water has replaced the natural water in developed countries
and modern cities. Similarly, people in the developed society
are consuming organic food only, whereas in the 4"? world
(indigenous people) live on the chemical product of food any
they do not have a loud voice and political clout. There is
no hesitation to utilize the maximum of nature’s wealth for
Epilogue Conclusion 287
the developed human society. The exclusion of indigenous
people on the resources of nature against the law of holistic
system, which results in disintegration and devastation in
the phenomena of nature. The worst victims in this unholy
race are the indigenous people who are completely or partly
deprived of their right to the home territory and its wealth,
making gross discrimination, dependency and despondency
on the rich and powerful resulting holocaust. All living
beings are indispensably dependent on the Pandoras box of
the world (store). Those knowing how to get over their need
for luxurious living are known to be advanced people, and
the indigenous people are those who are dependent on the
mercy and doles. It is the onus duty of the world’s intellectual
society, leaders (elected members in the Parliament) of the
different countries to ensure the welfare of the indigenous
people.
Here is the extraction from the Parliamentary debated
(House of Lords) U.K Vol 672 No. 21 Thursday 23 June,
2005. “Several noble Lords mentioned the Chittagong Hill
Tracts. There have been internal tensions since the 1960's’
between the Bengali settlers and the tribal inhabitants
there. The Bangladesh government initiated discussions
with representatives of the tribal inhabitants in December
1996 which, understandily resulted in a peace accord being
signed in December 1997, But there has been little progress
on implementing it or on setting the land disputes that re
at the heart of many of the tensions between, tribal
inhabitants and Bengali settlers. “There are writings on the
walls, there are fascists pretending to be humanitarians.
The most important factor is that the implementation of the
peace accord would drag on unless a democratic voice is built
up in the world for peace with fair justice and equal share
of countries wealth. Here are a people who have been
discriminated and victimized economically, and still struggle
to be recognized internationally and to have their own
power. But, ironically, their homeland has turned into a
288 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
sanctuary for terrorism — the worst of its kind, and hits the
world right now. They beg the question to the world leaders;
is there any other way to get off from man- made genocide
disaster holocaust, miseries within limit of boundaries of
human existence? In the ever changing world there are sings
of the times: Join hands together to protect world’s
indigenous people. Genilaizaiton of their idealisim freely
without any warp from those who are deflecting them Let
not it remain a visionary, mistic idea alone.
Anton Chekhoy writes in three sisters (a one Act play)
“one longs for life! O my God! Time will pass, and we shall
go away for ever, and we shall be forgotten, our faces will]
be forgotten, our voices, and how many there were of us;
but our sufferings will pass into joy for those who will live
after us, happiness and peace will be established upon earth,
and they will remember kindly and bless those who have
lived before”.
=
~]
Bibliography
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Saint Hilaire translated by Laura Ensor. Published
by George Routledge and Sons Ltd. U.K.
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The Tribes of Brahamputra Valley by L.A. Waddel.
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Index
A
Abell, G.E.B., 135
Abhi and Binnaka Raja, 66
Abhiraja, 25
Abhiraja lineage, 38
Absorbing of Chakma
migrants in India - views,
59
ACDC (Autonomous Chakma
District), 221
area, 56
Agar Tara, 212
Agartara/Aryatara, 158
Ahom Shan Kings customs,
27
Alikadam, 41
Ruins, 71
Alphabets of Chakmas, 223
Amida Trust
Conference 2003
Chakma plight -speech
on, 263-65
project, 283
Amitayus - offerings to, 185-
86, 190
Amnesty International
Report on CHT HR
violations, 102-104
Amyrgian Sakas, 22
Angus Hume, 45
Appearance of Chakmas, 70-
71
Arahant - Buddha on, 195-97
Arakan history, 16
Arms and ammunition
declaration list, JSS, 93
Army personnels sexual
attacks, abduction cases,
52
Army uprising in Bangladesh
- 1975, 48
Art of writing, 218-19
Arunachal Pradesh
Chakmas, 58, 290
CHT area,163
Arya Tara, 69, 162, 212
Asanga, 146
Ashoka’s Time, 16
Aspiration / conditions of
Chakmas, 31
Assam
Buddhism, 282
CHT area, 163-69
Atisa, Dipankara Srijan, 169,
168
Ava region, 20
294
Avalokitesvara Bodhisatt a,
199
Avatamsaka Sutra (Flower
Adornment Sutra), 190,
169
Avatanusaka Sutra verse, 282
B
Babootoung city, 38
hills- branches, 33-34
BAKSHAL (Bangladesh
Krishak Sramik Awami
League), 45 :
divisions of CHT, 48
Bana Bhante (Chakma
Buddhist Bhikku), 277
Bandarban Hill District Loca
Government Council Act,
80-81
Banderban district population
growth 1991, 53
Bangladesh
CHT under, 161
economic indicators,107
budget allocations,
107
Chakmas autonomy
impact, 262
Government -
agreement, 79
liberation, 48
origin-reasons, attitude
towards Chakmas, 64
War 1971, 97
Bankim Chakma (Committee
for citizenship rights to
Chakmas of Arunachal),
of
JS5
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Barendra Desh, 24
Barkal HR violations 1984,
102
BDR -HR violations by, 102-
103
Bengal Award (Sir Radcliffe’s),
43
Bengal Boundary Commission
letter by Radcliffe, 119
public sittings, 120
boundary line details,
122-24 population factor
123 instructions, 127
Bengali as court language,
212
Bengali Muslim
settlers, 42
forcible settlement in
CHT, 50-51
Bengali writers,213 language
forms,213
Bengal’s division into stocks,
23
Bhagalpur (South), 23
Bhikku Sasena
address,193
Bhutto, Z.A., 49-50
Bihar
(ancient) divisions, 23
division, 204-205 .
Bijoygiri and Samagiri kings,
35
Champanagar story of
overthrowing thrones,
35-36
Kifi's
Index
Biju/Bihu festival, 231
Binita Roy (mother of Tridev
Roy), 50
Binnakya Raja, 25
Binoy Kumar Chakma case
study, 57
Blavatsky, H.P., 206
Bodhicitta, 199
Bodhisattva Samantabhadra -
practices and vows of, 169
address, 169-82
ten vows of Bodhisattvas,
170-74
Bodhisattvas,182
vows/ideals,
197-98
Boundary Commission
meaning,
crisis, & CHT correspon-
dence, 113
Awards, 115
Brahmi Script origin, 227
Brigade HQ in CHT area, 99
British Burma, 26
Buddha Gautam, 25
Arakan visit, 16
death, 31
ashes distribution, 31
Buddhahood attainment, 199
Buddha's
Garments, 151
Stupa, 31
Buddhism
protection of, 70
295
among Chakmas,z76-77
decline, 158,165
history, 162
split in, 149
Buddhist Canonical literature,
168
Buddhist Councils, 167-68
First, second, third, 201-
202
Buddhist
doctrines, 275-76
healing, 275
religion manifestations,
147-48, 167
Society of Great Britain
209
status present, 31
Theory, 143
traditions -
time, 16
Budget allocation for Chakma
development, 61
Burma British, 155
Burmese
descent, 67
invasion of Assam, 29
territory ceding of, 26
Burmese-Chakma-Bengali
script,215
Burpara ceremony,274
Burrows, Sir Fredrick, 116
C
Cachar District Population,
124
Ashoka’s
296
CADC (Chakma Autonomous
District Council), 57
area expansion, 60
CCRC (Committee of
Citizenship Rights of the
Chakmas), 249
petition to NHRC,249
Celestial Bodhisattvas,199
Central Asia-migrants from,
230
. Chak, 230
Chakma
Arakanese link, 27
history,16 term, 17
origin, 25,65-66
area UT status, 60
Chakma Autonomous District
Council, 62-65
Chakma Buddhist
Organisations, 155
religion, 147
Chakma
chiefs division of CHT
1892, 42
proups(10),266
incidents/ massacre
casualty table-1971-
2001,278-80
kingdom -
divisions,42
1860 -
migrants in Mizoram,61
name, origin, 265
habitation, descent,
route, 265, 267
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Chakma Nirupam (Cong), 69
Chakma population differences,
with Pakistani popula.
tion, 46
Chakma Raj family saving by
army, 48
Chakma Raja's list of, 32
Chakma
region jurisdiction, 3]
aspirations, 31
religion/philosophy,274
script/language,211-12
society,271
studies development,214
/ Sakya race history, 30
preference for India, 57
descent, 65-66
sub-tribes, 65
Chakmas Tara Code, 69
Champa city (ancient), 19
kingdom, 19
destruction of, 23
jurisdiction, 26
Champa trees, 41
Champanagar Bihar CHT
lineage, 35
Changing of hands, 26
Changma (sub-group), 28
Charya Pad writing, 211
Chatal Hills - verse on, 215-
16
Chatterji, Suniti Kumar, 215
Chaws, 34
Index
, Children- Chakmas, 271
Chittagong, 42
annexure of, 27
collector letter to, 34
Chooma village, 70
Choomeas, 70
Chronological history of
Buddhism, 201
CHT, 42
as ancestral homeland
for Chakmas, 16-17
alllocation to Pakistan,
18, 43
area, population, history,
42, 45, 97
tribes list, 42
CHT Act 1860,159
CHT
apreement - Report on
implementation, 107
CHT Commission 2000, 107
CHT demands memorandum
1972, 49
CHT Development Board -
projects/programs,105
CHT
land area / categories, 51
lineage from Champa
Nagar Bihar, 35-36
CHT Peace Accord 1997, 53
impact, 54
CHT population
constituents tribal vs
immigrants, 45
prowth- 1991, 53
297
CHT Regional Council
composition,88
membership, 89
activities, 89
funds, 90-91
Citizenship issue of Chakmas,
62, 248
Cittamani Tara, 68
Cluster villages, 101
Comillatilla-Taindong
gunning 1986, 103
Congress Legislators, 61
Constitution of Bangladesh,
97
Counter insurgency, 100
strategy, 101
operations killings-
numbers, 104-105
Culture- chakmas, 233
Curle, Adam 62
on CHT area and floods,
63
D
Dalai Lama, 286
fleeing, 209
on Nirvana, 198
Dam construction
and flood, 63
impact, 64
Demographic profile CHT, 52-
53 ;
Dependent Arising and
Sunyatas, 146
298
Deporting of Chakmas to
Bangladesh, 59
Descent of Chakmas, 65-66,
230
Devashi Roy as Chakma
Raja, 111
Dhamma, 166
Dhammapada verses on
suffering and happiness,
193
Dharam - bux Khan (King)
death, succession, 34
Dharamagate Sutra,191
Dhaza Raja of Kapilvastu, 25
dynasty, 26
Dihing river inhabitants, 27
Dinnwadi / Dinnwavati, 30
shrine of Buddha, 30
Dipankara Srijana Atisa, 149
Dispersion, 18
Division during independence,
18
DNA studies in human
migratory pattern, 16
Doingnak Chakma, 27
Dress- Chakmas, 268
women, 232
E
Earl of Listowel
unique, 134
Eight Fold Path, 143
Elders - Chakmas,270
Election Commission Order
on Chakma Citizenship
enrolment, 261
comm-
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Electoral Role eligibility
conditions, (Bangladesh),
81
Enrolment of Chakmas as
citizens,261
Ershad government on
Chakmas repression, 262
Erskine Crum, U.F., 130
Ethnic language loosing of,
213
Exchange of CHT terms, 49
F
Farghana, 22
Farrukh Shiyar (king), peace
with, 27
Fateh Khan, 27
Fetters (10), 151, 195
Fikiruddin Ahmed Dr -
Bangladesh's Chief
Advisor, 54
Funds for District Council -
administration of, 60
G
Genealogical studies races,
33
Genetic research of
Chakma’'s, 32-33
Gopal King, 23
Government (Bangla)
mistrust of CHT people,
101
Greek connection - Asoka’s,
229
Greek Script origin in India,
229
Index
Groups - sub-groups, 29
Gurdaspur District Allocation,
128 |
H
Hari Parshad Shastri,211
Hieun Tsang’s
| visit, 204
writings, 16
accounts on Buddhism,
167
Hill District Council
(Bangladesh)
responsi-bilitry, 87
Hill District Local Council
Act, 1984 amendments,
80-87 |
Hinayna Buddhism Doctrine,
146
Hindu Philosophy, 143
Hiranga Parvana, 23
Hirodotus, 17, 21
on Scythians, 143
History of Chakma
Buddhists, 156-57
Holistic world, 32
HR violations
by armed forces, 102-105
in CHT, 51
Hutchinson, R.H ., accounts,
23
I
Iddhi, 147
power, 153
Indian Sakya dynasty -
overthrowing of, 26
299
India’s stand on Chakmas
citizenship issue,
petition,250-52
Indo - Scythians, 17
Indo- Pak War 1972 impact on
CHT, 47-48
Infantry Div of Chittagong
Division, 99
Innundating CHT area -
Kaptai Project, 46
Insurgency movement in
Chakmas, 273
Insurgency violence -
impact, 162
Irrawady River, 20
Ismay- Liaquat
communication on
Boundary Commission,
128
J
Jadu’s embracing of Islam, 33
Jana Samhati Samiti, 79
apreement with
Bangladesh Govern-
ment, 79
Jhuming Forest Hill Tract, 28
Jhuming,70
Jinnah on Boundary
Commission, 130
Jogini Tantra, 169
JSS
and Bangladesh Govt
agreement, 92-95
arms and ammunition
list to government,93
300
members compensation
for rehabilitation, 93
members release from
jails, 94
Jumma people, 42
K
Kadu,156
Kalachakra Tantra, 149
Kalindi Rani (Chakma
Queen), 28, 34, 41, 213
succession letter, 34
role in mutiny, 41
social changes, 41
Kamaloka / Rupaloka, 155
Kanjur/ Tanjur (Tibetan
divisions), 168
Kapilavastu, 25
Kaptai Dam construction
impact, 160
Kaptai Hydro Electric Power
Plant, 46
impact, 101
damage, 46
Kaptai Lake, 85
Karatoya river -religious
significance, 227
Karnaphulli
Valley, 70
River - Hydro Electric
Project on, 46
Kaukhali - Kalampati HR
violations 1980, 102
Kaushal Swaraj, 61
letter to Advani on
Chakmas rehabili-
tation, 246
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Khadiravani Tara, 68
Khagrachari District
population growth rate,
dd
Khagrachari Hill District
Local Govt Council Act,
80-87
Khan title meaning, 33
Khudiram Chakma case,254
Khuki Ram wedding celebra-
tions - rhyme,219
Khyengtha (Chakma name),
meaning, significance, 29
Koch kingdom in North
Bengal, 23,66
Kofi Annan UN Sec Gen, 237
Koratoya river, 19, 23-24
Korea Buddhism, 203
Kubo valley China, 25
Kuki invasions
British, 159
Kuki land,163
Kurgan people. chromosome,
33
against:
L
Labom Chakmas, 55
Laiu Autonomous District
Council, 60
Lakshi Pala, 152-53
Lalthanwala Mr (Mizoram) on
Chakma citizenship, 59
Land allotment for rubber
plantations, 92
Land aquired by army, 106
Index
Land Commission (for tribal
settlements), 91
members, 92
Language- Chakmas, 269
Laotian link, 70
Larma, M.N.. (PCJSS), 50
Letters during partition to
Mountbatten,112-113
Chittagong collector, 34
Henry Ricketts, 35
Lewin, Capt T.H.,159
Liaquat Ali Khan on CHT
allocation, 117
visit1947, 128
Literal society,220
Literary works - Chakmas,
212
Loan exemptions, 92, 94
Logang 1992, 103
inquiry commission, 104
massacre 1992, 51
Lohitic
descent, 230
term, 30
tribe of CHT, 30
Longadu carnage, 1989, 103
Lower! Higher Fetters, 196
Lumbini, 25
Lunglei to Haka track,43
M
Mad man - Sher Daulat, 36
Maha Bodhi Society, 206
301
Mahakashyapa’s recitation of
Buddha's teachings,168
Mahaparinibbana Sutta, 31
on death, funeral of
Buddha, 31
Mahavagea Pitaka, 147
Mahayana Buddhism, 162
Doctrine, 146
Rise, 199
Mahayana School, 168, 199
Mahayana Tara, 275
Mahinda, 202
Malya bombing, 1992, 103
Manabendra Larma (PCJSS)
on new constitution, 97-
98
Mandala, 150
Marriage Chakmas, 230
Matamuri River valley, 36, 41
Matiranga HR violations,
1986, 103
Matsya Desh, 24
Meditation and solipsism,146
Meithis uprooting of Sakyas
in Manipur, 25
Menon, V.P., om’ Bengal
Award, 129,131,134
“ ftpnsultations with, 135
Military officers and tribal
women, 52
Militarization of CHT area,
96, 98 impact,,106
Miller, Fredrich, accounts, 50
302
Mind (importance of), 194
Ministry on CHT Affairs, 95
advisory council
constituents, 95-96
Mizo National Front view on
citizenship to Chakmas,
62
Mizo Zirlai Pawl (MZP),58-59
head count of Chakmas,
59
Mizoram
word-meaning, 55
Chakmas in, 55, 61
Chakma area,163-64
divisions, 56
Moga (Saka King), 22
Moksha, 150
Mon - Kamer race, 20
Mongloid race, 19
Features, 30
Link, 66
Mongoloid (Lohitic) stock in
Bengal, 23
Mountbatten meeting with
Indo-Pak representatives-
1947, 115
letter to Nehru on CHT,
138
Mramma,155
Mughal Rule and Chakma
encounter, 27
Mukti Bahini (Freedom
Fighter) entry into CHT,
48
atrocities of, 48
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Mulasaravastivada Vinaya,
150
Muslim/ Non Muslim
population in Boundary
Commission,,123
Muslims outnumbering non-
Muslim tribals, 53
N
Nadir Buddhas,189
Nagarjuna, 145-46,203
Namachari massacre 1992, 51
National Committee on CHT
affairs, 1997, 53
Negrito (Dravidian) stock in
Bengal, 23
Nehru
on CHT allocation, 43,
115, 17
on Boundary Commi-
ssion, 126, 130
letter extract on CHT<
134
Ngawang Nameyal, 205
NHRC, 247
Public Interest Writ
Petition vs Arunachal
Pradesh 1995, 244
Non-violence and abstention,
276
North - East region- India,
164
North - East/ West direction
Buddhas, 190-91
Northern direction Buddhas,
189
Index
O
Objective/Subjective
experience of seeing the
world, 144
Odantapuri - Maha Vihara,19
Olcott Colonel,206
Old Pagan, 38
Qmarg / Amorg Kings, 22
Oppression of Chakmas, 18
Origin / history of Sakya
people study, 36-38
Origin of Chakmas, 25, 65-66
Original dwelling house of
Chakmas, 270
Ornaments
women,2902
Chakma
Osaka University Japan -
Chakma study,220
Outnumbering of tribals in
CHT, 45,53, 161
P
Pagla Mura hill / Pagla Raja,
71
Pagla Raja - Shatua, shrine,
accounts by Tridev Roy,
71-78
Pakistan CHT allocation to
1947, 43, 160
Pakistani Government
anti Chakma actions, 272-
73
treatment of Chakmas,
44-45
mistrust of Chakmas, 44
303
Pal dynasty, 165
Panchari HR violations, 1986,
102
Parbatya Chattagram Jana
Samhati Samiti (PCJSS),
47
Peace agreement with
Bangladesh Govt, 96-
97
Formation, 101
Armed wing operations,
102
Pariah and Sakya word, 33
Parliamentary Debate (House
of Lords) 2005 on CHT &
Indigenous people
protection,288
Patel Sardar Vallabh Bhai
on CHT allocation, 43
on Boundary Commission,
130, 136-37
letter to Mountbatten
1947, 136
Paticca Samuppada ec oncepts
of, 146
Peace Accord, 107
PCJSS and Bangladesh
Govt 1997, 162
Pemberton, R Beilean
accounts/Report on
Eastern Frontier of
British India, 30, 38
Per Capita expenditure on
Chakmas, 61
Plight of Chakmas, 275
304 Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Population
India religion-wise, 264
break-up 1941 Census,
133
in CHT 1971-81, 161
of CHT tribals, 97,99
Post partition position of
CHT, 272
Po-u-daung Pagoda, 38
Power - aura of,216
Prakrit language,211
Prasit Bikash Khisha, 54-55
Prome (city), 38
Punjab Boundary Commission,
127
Q
Quota / Reservation and
scholarships, 92
R
Racial Mark - Chakmas, 267
Radcliffe Sir Cyril allocation of
CHT by, 116
letters to Mountbatten,
119
Rahman, Sheikh Mujibur, 48-
49
asSassination, 50
demands to by CHT
tribals, 49
Rahman, Fazlur on Boundary
Commission, 116
Raja Tridev Roy, 45, 50
Pakistan Award, 256
bitternesss for British, 46
moving to Pakistan post-
war, 48
in New York, 49 Return
question, 49
early life, education,
career, wherabouts,
109-112
Rajmata Benita Roy,49
Rajya Sabha Committee
Recommendations, 57
Rangamati Hill District Local
Govt Council Act 1989 80-
87
Rangamati, 41,*160
population growth rate,
53
Rangoonia, 41
Rape incidents, 103-104
Recommendations for
awarding CHT to East
Bengal, 132-33
Refugee
influx in India,262
taking back issue from
Tripura, 91
Regional HQ of army in CHT,
99
Rehabilitating Chakmas -
Arunachal Pradesh, 246
Rehabilitation in Bangladesh
of Tribal evacuees
apreement 1997, 91
Reing Khyong’ Reserve
Forest tribal eviction -
1970, 45
ii
Index
Religious places -Chakmas,
227
Reservation/ Quota system in
govt services/ education,
92-93
Rigoberto Menchu Tum, 15
Risley’s accounts, 30
Report- 1891, 66
Robe offering ceremony, 151
Route of Chakma movement,
22, 66
Roy, Chandra, 109
S
Sadhna Nanda Mahastavir,
153
Saikia, Hiteswara, 61
Saka,17,21, 230
clan massacre, 201
Sakya
massacre in Nepal, 25
in Manipur uprooting, 25
origin study, 36-38
Sakyamuni Gautam Buddha
17, 25
Death impact, 149
Sakyan Chakmas changes-
evidence, 29
Sakyan kings link with, 67
Sangma Capt Williamson, 61
Sarasvatimukha,229
Scholarship for tribals, 93
Scythian race, 17, 230
characteristics, features,
143
305
Second World War - Eastern
Front, 43
Sen Dynasty, 165
Settlement Programme
(1979-84),100
Shans, 18
Shanti Bahini (peace force -
armed wing of JSS), 50,
102
skirmishes with
Bangladesh army, 50
Sher Daulat (Mad man), 36
Shiv Saran Chakma (poet/
composer) contribution,
152
Shravakas (eminent),182
Singpho tribe, 28
different names, 28
Skandha Circle / Process,133-
45
Social laws in Chakmas,271-
fr
Solipsism, 143,146
South - eastern / western
direction Buddhas,190,
Spiritual power - iddhi, 147
Stupas (Buddhist) in
Manipur,16 of Bugiha, 31
Sub-tribes and septs of
Chakmas, 65, 221
Sukhavati - Vyuha Sutra,182
Super powers of world,28*
Sylhet
District Referendum, 127
Thanas population, 123
306
T
T - Champa jurisdiction, 26
T - Sak ma homeland, 26
T - Sampay nago Myo, 20
T- Sak, Thet (K) tribe, 17
Tagaung, 38, 155
overthrowing of, 26
Tai - Chinese race, 20
Tai - Shan Race, 29
Talukdar Sakya
meeting with, 282-85
Article,156, 263-65
Tantric enlightenment, 150
Tara, 162
Goddess (Tibet) forms, 67
meaning, 148
Teachings of Buddha, 194-95
Tenzing Gyatso,286
Textile weaving N-E india,234
Theism,143
Theosophical Society, 206
Theravada Buddhism, 41, 147-
49,275
Theravada/ Mahayana
approaches,200
Therovadin Vinaya, 150
Thet (Sak people), territory,
26
Tibetan
doctrine, 149
Tantras, 168
Tibetan vs Chakma treatment
in India, 287
Genesis of Indigenous Chakma Buddhists
Tibeto- Burman
descent, 2380
Race, 20 movement, 66
. Todar Mal, 27
Toshitak Amano Prof, 220
Tribal women appearance,
comments on, sexual
attacks, 52
Tripura Chakma, 58-59, 91
settlements, 164
Troops numbers in CHT, 99
T-sak-ma, 65
Tsong -'sha-pa, 205
Two canons capture of, 27
U
Universal Declaration of
Human Rights 1948
Articles 1-30, 237-45
Preamble, 239
Upajati, 80
V
Vaisali, 23
Valtea (MZP) views, 58
Viceroy Tedders Persona]
Report Aug 1947, 125-31
Vyaya Sen king, 165
Vikramsila, 16
Monastery, 19
niversity, 165
Vreji, 23
W
Weaving N-E India, 233
Index
Western direction Buddhas,
189
Wisdom - poem, 218
Women- Chakmas,269
Women’s seats in Hill District
Council, 80-87
World Peace poem,217
Y
Y-chromosome, 33
genealogical study, 37
307
Yahya Khan’s tyranny, 64
Yandaboo - treaty of, 26
Yinmofu, 22
Z
Zia-ur - Rahman, 50 on
militirization of hill
tracts,108
Zoramchanil Rosenmary
article on Chakmas, 56-
57
=" aS 15 OF a INDIGENOUS
—
= Se —
“AND THEIR PULVERIZAYT
publications to his credit,
S.P. Talukdar, initially
commenced a career in
merchant shipping and
travelled far and wide across
freelance writer with several —
seven seas. However, il was a career in the :
state civil sevice which beckoned him and he ~
served as an administrative officer in a state
in the north eastern part of India where he
spent most of his best years of his eventful —
life and where he had the opportunity to —
further interact closely with the members of
the minority Buddhist indegenious tribes
and understand the challenges that were
being faced by the members of such tribes. —
These experiences motivated him to write —
on the origin, history and present plight
of one of such Buddhist tribes — the chakma
Buddhist Tribe, after having retired
voluntarily from the government services as
Director Relief and rehabilitation, thus —
owing no allegiance to any authority, he set
out to write on these Buddhist tribes with no
restrictions, reservations or prejudices. One
of his accredited tasks in initiating the DNA
study on the origin of the Sakyas, the tribe to
which Gautam Buddha was born, which
study was conducted by Dr. Mark G. Thomas
of London University. He was also a visiting
member of the Buddhist Organisation Amida ~
Trust, London.
ISBN: 978-81-7835-758-4
Courtesy: Cover photos are from REGA.
REGA is an organisation dedicated to promote
and exchange indigenous culture and education.
PUBLICATIONS
Treasuring Books on Humanities & Social Sciences
Delhi-110052 Ph.: 9212729499
E-mail: kalpaz@hotmail.com
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