Wikipedia

Passive house

For passive solar houses, see Passive solar building design. For buildings operating without power or other services after a disaster, see Passive survivability.

Passive house (Passivhaus) is a voluntary building performance standard for very high energy efficiency and thermal comfort that substantially reduces a building’s carbon footprint.[2] Buildings certified to the standard are ultra-low energy and typically require very little energy for space heating or cooling.[3][4] The approach is used for housing and for non-residential buildings such as offices, schools, kindergartens and healthcare facilities. Energy efficiency is integral to architectural design rather than an add-on.[5] Although most common in new construction, the principles are also applied in deep renovations (see EnerPHit).

Passive house developed by Western Technical College in La Crosse, Wisconsin.[1]

As of January 2025, projects certified by the Passive House Institute (PHI) comprise over 47,400 units with about 4.32 million m² of treated floor area (TFA) worldwide; the public PHI database lists nearly 6,000 projects.[6] In North America, the Passive House Institute US (PHIUS) reported 500+ total certified projects and ~1.6 million ft² certified in 2024 alone, with 4.4 million ft² design-certified that year.[7][8] While early adoption concentrated in German-speaking countries and Scandinavia, certified projects are now documented across diverse climate zones, including hot-humid and tropical regions.[9]

History

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Bo Adamson, co-originator of the passive house concept
 
Wolfgang Feist, co-originator and founder of the Passivhaus-Institut (PHI) in Germany

The term passive house was used in the 1970s for buildings emphasizing passive solar strategies; since the 1990s it denotes meeting the quantified PHI certification criteria (space conditioning, primary energy, airtightness and comfort requirements).[10] The standard originated from a 1988 discussion between Bo Adamson (Lund University) and Wolfgang Feist (then at the Institute for Housing and Environment, Darmstadt), followed by research supported by the state of Hesse.[11][12]

North American “superinsulation” pioneers of the 1970s (e.g., the Saskatchewan Conservation House and the Leger House) provided important technical precursors, including heat-recovery ventilation and airtightness testing.[13][14]

First examples

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Four terraced houses in Darmstadt-Kranichstein (1990–1991) are widely cited as the first built to what became the Passive House standard.[15][16]

Further implementation

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The Schiestlhaus [de] (Austria, 2005), first high-alpine Passive House.
 
A Passive House building in Darmstadt, Germany

The Passivhaus-Institut (PHI) was founded in 1996 in Darmstadt to develop, promote and certify to the standard. By 2010 an estimated 25,000+ Passive House buildings existed worldwide.[2][17][18]

The concept has since been demonstrated at scale. Gaobeidian, China, hosts what is reported as the world’s largest Passive House development (Railway City), with several hundred thousand m² of certified area built in phases since 2019.[19][20] The world’s tallest certified Passive House building is the 88 m Bolueta tower in Bilbao, Spain (2018).[21][22]

In the United States, Katrin Klingenberg’s 2003 “Smith House” (Urbana, IL) catalyzed a movement that led to the creation of PHIUS (2007). PHIUS has since certified hundreds of projects; New York City’s Park Avenue Green (2019) was recognized as North America’s largest Passive House affordable housing project at the time.[23][24][25]

In the UK health sector, the Passivhaus-certified Foleshill Health Centre (Coventry, opened 2021) demonstrated substantial energy savings in operation and a replicable delivery model for NHS facilities.[26][27]

Standards

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Thermogram: Passive House (right) vs. conventional building (left)

While techniques such as superinsulation predate the standard, Passive House (PHI) specifies quantitative performance criteria and quality assurance. Key requirements include (abridged):[4]

  • Annual space heating (and, in suitable climates, cooling) demand ≤ 15 kWh/m2/a (0.0047 MJ/sq ft/sq ft) or peak heat load ≤ 10 W/m2 (0.0012 hp/sq ft), calculated with the PHPP using local climate data.
  • Airtightness: n50 ≤ 0.6 h⁻¹ at ±50 Pa (blower-door test).
  • Efficient mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (typically ≥75% sensible efficiency).
  • Whole-building primary energy/renewable energy limits as defined by PHI (see PHI documentation).

Standards in the US: PHI vs. PHIUS+

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Two related but distinct standards operate in North America:

  • PHI (Darmstadt): the original international Passive House standard and certification system using PHPP and PHI quality assurance.
  • PHIUS+ (Chicago): climate-specific performance targets (CORE/ZERO/REVIVE families) with on-site QA/QC by accredited raters and verifiers; criteria are optimized for carbon and cost within each North American climate zone.[28][29]

The two programs use different energy models and protocols and certify independently.[30]

Construction costs

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Upfront costs vary by market, building type and experience of the delivery team. Reported premiums have ranged from ~5–10% in Germany, the UK and the US (with reductions as supply chains mature), partially offset by downsized or eliminated conventional heating/cooling systems and lower operating costs.[31][32] Delivery at parity with standard code buildings has been demonstrated in some German multifamily projects (e.g., Vauban, Freiburg).[33] High-latitude locations (>60°N) can face higher envelopes and glazing costs to meet targets.[34]

Design and construction

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Passive House combines envelope performance, airtightness and efficient services

Core practices include:

  • Passive solar design and urban/landscape integration – compact massing, appropriate solar gains, shading, and mitigation of overheating; strategies are adapted to climate, especially in hot-humid regions.[35]
  • Superinsulation and thermal-bridge-free detailing (typical opaque U-values ~0.10–0.15 W/m²·K).[36]
  • High-performance windows (triple/quad glazing, low-e coatings, inert-gas fills, warm-edge spacers; whole-window U-values often ≤0.80 W/m²·K)[37].[citation needed]
  • Airtightness to n50 ≤0.6 h⁻¹, verified by blower-door testing; intermediate tests during construction are recommended.[38]
  • Balanced mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (typically ≥75% efficiency) for IAQ and energy recovery; earth-tubes may be used with careful moisture control where appropriate.[39]
  • Low-load space conditioning – many climates allow heating via tempered ventilation air with small duct heaters or heat-pump coils; peak loads are limited by envelope performance.[40]

Performance and occupant behaviour

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Concerns are sometimes raised that occupants must restrict behaviours (e.g., opening windows), but sensitivity analyses indicate performance is generally robust to typical occupant variation.[41]

International comparisons

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  • United States – Space-heating intensity around 1 British thermal unit per square foot (11 kJ/m2) per heating degree day is typical for PHI Passive House, compared to ~5–15 for code-built homes (2003 MEE Code), representing 75–95% savings. Waldsee BioHaus (Minnesota) follows the German standard and reported ~85% lower energy use than comparable LEED homes.[42]
  • United Kingdom – New houses to Passive House standard used ~77% less space-heating energy than homes built under circa-2006 Building Regulations.[43]
  • Ireland – Typical Passive House dwellings consumed ~85% less space-heating energy and cut related CO₂ by ~94% versus 2002 Regulations baselines.[44]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "24th St. Passive House by Intep".
  2. ^ a b Zeller, Tom Jr. (September 26, 2010). "Beyond Fossil Fuels: Can We Build in a Brighter Shade of Green?". The New York Times. p. BU1.
  3. ^ Gröndahl, Mika; Gates, Guilbert (September 25, 2010). "The Secrets of a Passive House". The New York Times. Retrieved September 27, 2010.
  4. ^ a b "Passive House requirements". Passive House Institute. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  5. ^ Ji, Yan; Plainiotis, Stellios (2006). Design for Sustainability. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press. ISBN 978-7-112-08390-9.
  6. ^ "Passive House building certification data: over 4 million m² worldwide". Passive House California. February 15, 2025. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  7. ^ "2024 Annual Report" (PDF). PHIUS. April 2025. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  8. ^ "The World We Want: Taking Stock and Looking Ahead (2025)". PHIUS. January 10, 2025. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  9. ^ "Passive House in the Global South". Passipedia. August 13, 2025. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  10. ^ Ürge-Vorsatz, Diana; Khosla, Radhika; Bernhardt, Rob; Chan, Yi Chieh; Vérez, David; Hu, Shan; Cabeza, Luisa F. (2020-10-17). "Advances Toward a Net-Zero Global Building Sector". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 45 (1): 227–269. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-045843. hdl:10459.1/69710.
  11. ^ "Institute for Housing and the Environment". Archived from the original on 2017-12-12. Retrieved 2017-12-11.
  12. ^ Feist, Wolfgang (September 2006). "15th Anniversary of the Darmstadt-Kranichstein Passive House". Archived from the original on 2014-07-14. Retrieved 2017-12-11.
  13. ^ "How Saskatchewan Pioneered Energy-Efficient Housing and Influenced Building Standards". Saskatchewan Research Council. March 27, 2018.
  14. ^ "History of Super-insulated Housing in North America" (PDF). British Columbia Building Envelope Council. September 22, 2010.
  15. ^ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273766969_The_world's_first_Passive_House_Darmstadt-Kranichstein_Germany
  16. ^ "The world's first Passive House, Darmstadt-Kranichstein, Germany [Passipedia EN]".
  17. ^ Rosenthal, Elisabeth (December 26, 2008). "Houses With No Furnace but Plenty of Heat". The New York Times. Retrieved December 27, 2008.
  18. ^ "11th International Conference on Passive Houses, 2007". Archived from the original on 2008-12-31. Retrieved 2017-12-11.
  19. ^ "Chinese city has the largest Passive House project in the world". Treehugger. October 24, 2019. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  20. ^ "Gaobeidian Railway City". Loop Design Awards. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  21. ^ "Bolueta in Bilbao, Spain, is now the tallest Passive House building in the world". October 31, 2018. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  22. ^ "Tallest passive building (Passivhaus)". Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  23. ^ "Mission & History". Passive House Institute US. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  24. ^ "Park Avenue Green is the largest Passive House building in North America". Bright Power. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  25. ^ "North America's largest Passive House affordable housing complex". Archinect. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  26. ^ "Foleshill Health Centre (project profile)". Passivhaus Trust. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  27. ^ "Low energy use confirmed at Foleshill Health Centre". Community Health Partnerships. April 27, 2023. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  28. ^ "Phius Standards". PHIUS. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  29. ^ "PHIUS+ 2015: Passive Building Standard – North America". PHIUS. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  30. ^ "PHI and Phius: What's the Difference?".
  31. ^ "The Passive House – sustainable, affordable, comfortable, versatile". International Passive House Association. Retrieved 2017-12-11.
  32. ^ Siegle, Lucy (December 8, 2013). "How can I live in a passive house?". The Guardian. Retrieved 2017-12-11.
  33. ^ Delleske, Andreas. "What is a Passive House?". Retrieved 2017-12-11.
  34. ^ "Passive Houses in High Latitudes" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-02. Retrieved 2017-12-11.
  35. ^ "Passive House in the Global South". Passipedia. 2025-08-13. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  36. ^ Swanson, Herb (September 26, 2010). "Energy Efficiency, a Step Further". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-09-29.
  37. ^ "Passivhaus Institut".
  38. ^ "Passive House requirements". PHI. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
  39. ^ Holladay, Martin (June 1, 2012). "Belgian Passivhaus is Rendered Uninhabitable by Bad Indoor Air". Green Building Advisor. Retrieved 2012-06-14.
  40. ^ "Passive House Estate in Hannover-Kronsberg" (PDF). p. 72. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-01-16. Retrieved 2017-12-11.
  41. ^ Blight, T. S.; Coley, D. A. (2013). "Sensitivity analysis of the effect of occupant behaviour on the energy consumption of passive house dwellings". Energy and Buildings. 66: 183–192. Bibcode:2013EneBu..66..183B. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.06.030.
  42. ^ "Design & Architecture". Waldsee BioHaus Environmental Living Center. Retrieved 2017-12-11.
  43. ^ "Energy Saving Potential of Passive Houses in the UK" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-06-03. Retrieved 2017-12-11.
  44. ^ "Passive Houses in Ireland" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-06-03. Retrieved 2017-12-11.

Further reading

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