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Political Sociology

A History of Modern Indonesia

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Adrian Vickers

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326 pages

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By Adrian Vickers

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  68. Cited in Mitsuo Nakamura, The Crescent Arises over the Banyan Tree: A Study of the Muhamadijah Movement in a Central Javanese Town (Yogyakarta: Gajah Mada University Press, 1993), p. 34. 3 'to assail the colonial machine'
  69. A. A. M. Djelantik, The Birthmark: Memoirs of a Balinese Prince (Singa- pore: Periplus, 1997), pp. 60-6; Andreas Tarnutzer, Kota Adat Denpasar (Bali). Stadtentwicklung, Staatliches Handeln und Endogene Institutionen, vol. 12 (Zurich: Geographisches Institut, 1993).
  70. Howard W. Dick, Surabaya, City of Work: Socioeconomic History, 1900-2000 (Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 2002), table 3.1.
  71. Pramoedya, Sang Pemula; Ahmat B. Adam, The Vernacular Press and the Emergence of Modern Indonesian Consciousness (1855-1913) (Ithaca, NY: Cor- nell University Southeast Asia Program, 1995); Sartono Kartodirdjo, Modern Indonesia: Tradition and Transformation (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1984), pp. 163-71.
  72. William H. Frederick, Visions and Heat: The Making of the Indonesian Revolu- tion (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989), pp. 62-3; Henri Chambert-Loir, 'Muhammad Bakir: a Batavian scribe and author in the nineteenth century', RIMA 18, 2 (Summer 1984), 44-72.
  73. H. M. J. Maier, 'From heteroglossia to polyglossia: the creation of Malay and Dutch in the Indies', Indonesia 56 (October 1993), 37-65; James Sneddon, The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2003), esp. pp. 86-106.
  74. J. A. van Doorn, 'A divided society: segmentation and mediation in late- colonial Indonesia', in G. Schutte and H. Sutherland (eds.), Papers of the Dutch-Indonesian Historical Conference Held at Lage Vuursche, The Neth- erlands, 23-27 June 1980 (Leiden: Bureau of Indonesian Studies, 1982), pp. 128-71;
  75. Frederick, Visions and Heat, esp. p. 17; Susan Abeyasekere, Jakarta: A History (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1987).
  76. Text of Nyai Ratna in Pramoedya, Sang Pemula, trans. Elizabeth Riharti, Joost Cote and Markus Soema, RIMA 32, 2 (Summer 1998), 45-95.
  77. Foreword to Mark Hanusz, Kretek: The Culture and Heritage of Indonesia's Clove Cigarettes (Jakarta: Equinox, 2000), p. xiv; see also 32-47.
  78. Suzanne April Brenner, The Domestication of Desire: Women, Wealth, and Modernity in Java (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988).
  79. James Rush, Opium to Java: Revenue Farming and Chinese Enterprise in Colonial Indonesia, 1860-1910 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990), pp. 248- 53;
  80. Peter Post, 'The Kwik Hoo Tong trading society of Semarang, Java: a Chinese business network in late colonial Java', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 33, 2 (2002), 279-96; Didi Kwartanada, 'Competition, patriotism and collaboration: the Chinese businessmen of Yogyakarta between the 1930s and 1945', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 33, 2 (2002), 257-77; Dick, Surabaya; Abeyasekere, Jakarta.
  81. Beryl de Zoete and Walter Spies, Dance and Drama in Bali (London: Faber and Faber, 1938; rpt. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 215;
  82. Robert Martin Dumas, 'Teater Abdulmuluk' in Zuid-Sumatra: op de Drempel van een Nieuw Tijperk (Leiden University, Onderzoekschool voor Aziatische, Afrikaanse, en Amerindische Studies, 2000).
  83. Abeyasekere, Jakarta; William H. Frederick, 'Dreams of freedom, moments of despair: Armijn Pane and the imagining of modern Indonesian cul- ture', in Jim Schiller and Barbara Martin-Schiller (eds.), Imagining Indone- sia: Cultural Politics and Political Culture (Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies, Monographs in International Studies, Southeast Asian Series 97, 1997), pp. 54-89; liner notes to Keroncong Asli, Gesang; Pramoedya cited in Rudolf Mràzek, Engineers of Happy Land: Technology and Nationalism in a Colony (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), p. 196.
  84. Freek Colombijn, 'The politics of Indonesian football', Archipel 59 (2000), 171-200; Antariksa, 'The life and happy times of soccer supporters', Latitudes 5 (June 2001), 27-33.
  85. Abeyasekere, Jakarta, p. 113; Salim Said, Shadows on the Silver Screen: A Social History of Indonesian Film (Jakarta: Lontar Foundation, 1991), ch. 1; Aiko Kur- asawa, 'Propaganda media on Java under the Japanese, 1942-1945', Indonesia 44 (October 1987), 72, 77, 79, 89; Frederick, 'Dreams of freedom', p. 60; Mràzek, Engineers of Happy Land, pp. 174-91.
  86. Anne Booth, 'Living standards and the distribution of income in colonial Indonesia: a review of the evidence', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 29, 2 (1988), 310-34, p. 325; Nico Dros, Wages, 1820-1940, vol. 13 of Peter Boomgaard (ed.), Changing Economy in Indonesia: A Selection of Statistical Source Material from the Early 19th Century up to 1940 (Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute, 1992) (but cf. Dick, Surabaya, table 5.2);
  87. John Ingleson, In Search of Justice: Workers and Unions in Colonial Java, 1908-1926 (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1986), pp. 15-19; W. F. Wertheim, Indonesian Society in Transition (The Hague: Van Hoeve, 1959), pp. 266-7; Elsbeth Locher-Scholten, Women and the Colonial State: Essays on Gender and Modernity in the Netherlands Indies, 1900- 1942 (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2000), p. 91; Ann Stoler and Karen Stessler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), ch. 8; John Ingleson, 'Urban Java during the Depression', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 19 (1988), 292-309, table 1; Dick, Surabaya, pp. 189-92, 277-9; Abeyasekere, Jakarta, p. 91.
  88. Michael Laffan, Islamic Nationhood and Colonial Indonesia: The Umma below the Winds (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), pp. 181-9; B. R. O'G. Anderson, Java in a Time of Revolution: Occupation and Resistance, 1944-46 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972), p. 436; George McT. Kahin, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1952);
  89. Takashi Shiraishi, An Age in Motion: Popular Radicalism in Java, 1912-1926 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990), esp. pp. 83-6; Harry A. Poeze, 'Early Indonesian emancipation: Abdul Rivai, Van Heutsz and the Bintang Hindia, BKI 145, 1 (1989): 87-106; C. L. M. Penders (transl. and intro.), Indonesia: Selected Documents on Colonialism and Nationalism, 1830-1942 (St Lucia: Uni- versity of Queensland Press, 1977), pp. 232-4; Ingleson, In Search of Justice, p. 252.
  90. H. M. J. Maier, 'Written in the prison's light: the Hikajat Kadiroen by Semaoen' (trans. Ernst van Lennep), RIMA 30 (1996), 1-18; Semaoen, Hikajat Kadiroen, trans. Jan Lingard et al. as 'The story of Kadiroen', RIMA 30 (1996), 19-139.
  91. G. W. J. Drewes, 'The struggle between Javanism and Islam as illustrated by the Serat Dermagandul', BKI 122 (1965), 309-65; Locher-Scholten, Women and the Colonial State, pp. 202-5.
  92. Mitsuo Nakamura, The Crescent Arises over the Banyan Tree: A Study of the Muhamadijah Movement in a Central Javanese Town (Yogyakarta: Gajah Mada University Press, 1993), pp. 60-2;
  93. Frederick, Visions and Heat, p. 68 (see also p. 39);
  94. Semaoen, Hikajat Kadiroen, trans. Lingard et al., pp. 113-14; Semaoen, 'An early account of the independence movement' (trans. Ruth McVey), Indonesia 1 (April 1966), 46-75; Dewi Yuliarti, Semaoen: Pers Bumiputera dan Radikalisasi Sarekat Islam Semarang (Semarang: Bendera, 2000), pp. 130-4.
  95. Elsbeth Locher-Scholten, 'State violence and the police in colonial Indone- sia', in Freek Colombijn and J. Thomas Lindblad (eds.), Roots of Violence in Indonesia: Contemporary Violence in Historical Perspective (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2002), pp. 81-104.
  96. J. D. Legge, Sukarno: A Political Biography (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1972);
  97. Bob Hering, Soekarno: Founding Father of Indonesia, 1901-1945 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2002).
  98. Pramoedya Ananta Toer, The Mute's Soliloquy, trans. Willem Samuels (New York: Penguin, 1998), p. 109.
  99. I Nyoman Darma Putra, Wanita Bali Tempo Doeloe: Perspektif Masa Kini (Denpasar: Bali Jani, 2003), pp. 21-48, referring to research by Lyn Parker.
  100. Syahrir's Out of Exile quoted by Maier, 'From heteroglossia to polyglossia', p. 39.
  101. Frederick, Visions and Heat, p. 27.
  102. Interview, 'I Made Darma (b. 1927)', by Pujastana 1996; Kwartanada, 'Com- petition, patriotism and collaboration', pp. 267-70; Hiroshi Shimizu, 'Rise and fall of the Karayuki-san in the Netherlands Indies from the late nine- teenth century to the 1930s', RIMA 26 (Summer 1992), 44-62; Frederick, Visions and Heat, pp. 84-5; Peter Post, 'Japan and the integration of the Neth- erlands East Indies into the world economy, 1868-1942', RIMA 27, special ed.: 'Island Southeast Asia and the world economy' (Winter/Summer 1993), 134-65; Netherland Government Information Bureau, A Decade of Japanese Underground Activities in the Netherland East Indies (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1942);
  103. Shigeru Sato, War, Nationalism and Peasants: Java under the Japanese Occupation, 1942-1945 (St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin, Asian Studies Association of Australian Publications Series 26, 1994);
  104. Elly Touwen-Bouwsma, 'The Indonesian nationalists and the Japanese "libera- tion" of Indonesia: visions and reactions (the Japanese occupation in Southeast Asia)', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 27, 1 (March 1996), 18-32. 4 the revolution
  105. Quoted by Tantri Yuliandini, 'Photos recount WWII horror', Jakarta Post, 19 February 2004.
  106. Pramoedya Ananta Toer, The Mute's Soliloquy, trans. Willem Samuels (New York: Penguin, 1998), pp. 157-8; also 'The vanquished', trans. H. Aveling, in A Heap of Ashes, pp. 74-106 (St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1975).
  107. Pramoedya, 'The vanquished', p. 50, the source of the quotations continued in subsequent paragraphs.
  108. B. R. O'G. Anderson, Java in a Time of Revolution: Occupation and Resistance, 1944-46 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972), pp. 413-14; Bob Her- ing, Soekarno: Founding Father of Indonesia, 1901-1945 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2002), pp. 13, 223; Jacques Leclerc, 'Afterword: the masked hero', in Anton Lucas (ed.), Local Opposition and Underground Resistance to the Japanese in Java, 1942-1945 (Clatyon, VIC: Monash University Papers on Southeast Asia 13, 1986), pp. 342-4.
  109. Anthony J. Reid and Oki Akira (eds.), The Japanese Experience in Indonesia: Selected Memoirs of 1942-1945 (Athens: Ohio University Monographs, 1986), pp. 43-4, 9-30; Numbers of POWS and Civilian Internees, www.beckett73. freeserve.co.uk/baker/prisoners.htm (accessed 4 June 2004), with some cau- tion; Elsbeth Locher-Scholten, 'After the "distant war": Dutch public memory of the Second World War in Asia', in Remco Raben (ed.), Representing the Japanese Occupation of Indonesia: Personal Testimonies and Public Images in Indonesia, Japan and the Netherlands (Zwolle / Amsterdam: Waanders / Neth- erlands Institute for War Documentation, 1999), p. 56 and n. 6.
  110. Richard Chauvel, Nationalists, Soldiers and Separatists: The Ambonese Islands from Colonialism to Revolt, 1800-1950 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1990), pp. 173-89.
  111. Pramoedya, Mute's Soliloquy, pp. 307-8;
  112. Sintha Melati, 'In the service of the underground: the struggle against the Japanese in Java' (trans. and annot.
  113. David Bouchier), in Lucas (ed.), Local Opposition and Underground Resistance, pp. 123-264; Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998), ch. 3; Suharti quoted in Maria Hartiningsih, 'Indonesia's "comfort women" ', Latitudes 3 (April 2001), 10-15.
  114. Audrey Kahin, Rebellion to Integration: West Sumatra and the Indonesian Polity (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1999), pp. 95-106; Anton Lucas, 'Images of the Indonesian woman during the Japanese occupation, 19 42-45', in Jean Taylor (ed.), Women Creating Indonesia: The First Fifty Years (Clayton, VIC: Monash Asia Institute, 1997), pp. 52-90, p. 74; Yuliandini, 'WWII hor- ror';
  115. A. N. Krisna, 'Asisten perapian kereta api'; 'Jejak getir korban romusha', Suara Merdeka, 1 March 2004; see also 'Kisah seorang romusha Jawa', Suara Independent 3, 1 (1995);
  116. Shigeru Sato, War, Nationalism and Peasants: Java under the Japanese Occupation, 1942-1945 (St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin, Asian Studies Association of Australia Publications 26, 1994), pp. 154-60, p. 259, n. 8.
  117. Theodore Friend, The Blue-Eyed Enemy: Japan against the West in Java and Luzon, 1942-1945 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), pp. 193-6;
  118. Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, ch. 5.
  119. Quotation from Pramoedya, 'The vanquished'; Elly Touwen-Bouwsma, 'The Indonesian nationalists and the Japanese "liberation" of Indonesia: visions and reactions (the Japanese occupation in Southeast Asia)', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 27,1 (March 1996), 18-32.
  120. Pramoedya, Mute's Soliloquy, p. 189; and foreword to Mark Hanusz, Kretek: The Culture and Heritage of Indonesia's Clove Cigarettes (Jakarta: Equinox, 2000), p. xiv; Pierre van der Eng, 'Indonesia's economy and standard of living in the 20th century', in Grayson Lloyd and Shannon Smith (eds.), Indonesia Today: Challenges of History (Singapore: Australian National University, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Indonesia Assessment Series, 2001), p. 191.
  121. William H. Frederick, Visions and Heat: The Making of the Indonesian Revolu- tion (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989), p. 102; Howard W. Dick et al., The Emergence of a National Economy: An Economic History of Indonesia, 1800-2000 (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 2001), pp. 165-7.
  122. Pramoedya, Mute's Soliloquy, pp. 178-88; Aiko Kurasawa, 'Propaganda media on Java under the Japanese, 1942-1945', Indonesia 44 (October 1987), 59-116.
  123. Lucas, 'Images of the Indonesian woman'.
  124. Friend, Blue-Eyed Enemy, p. 98.
  125. Pramoedya, Mute's Soliloquy; Anderson, Java in a Time of Revolution.
  126. Douglas Miles, Cutlass and Crescent Moon: A Case Study in Social and Political Change in Outer Indonesia (Sydney: University of Sydney, Centre for Asian Studies, 1976), p.111.
  127. Quotations from Mochter Lubis, Jalan Tak Ada Ujung (Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, 2002; orig. ed., 1952]), p. 78. See also Anthony Reid, Indonesian National Revolution (Hawthorn, VIC: Longman, 1974), chs. 2 and 3; Freder- ick, Visions and Heat; Marguerite Schenkuizen, Memoirs of an Indo Woman: Twentieth Century Life in the East Indies and Abroad, ed. and trans. Lizelot Stout van Balgooy (Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 1993), p. 185; Shirley Fenton Huie, The Forgotten Ones: Women and Children Under Nippon (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1992);
  128. Anthony Reid, 'Indonesia: revolu- tion without socialism', in Robin Jeffrey (ed.), Asia: The Winning of Independ- ence (London: Macmillan, 1981), pp. 107-57; Friend, Blue-Eyed Enemy.
  129. Idrus, 'Surabaja', in H. Aveling (ed. and trans.), From Surabaja to Armageddon: Indonesian Short Stories (Singapore: Heinemann, 1976), pp. 1-28;
  130. William H. Frederick, 'The appearance of revolution: cloth, uniform and the pemuda style in east Java, 1945-1949', in Henk Schulte Nordholt (ed.), Outward Appearances: Dressing State and Society in Indonesia (Leiden: KITLV, 1997), pp. 199-248.
  131. My thanks to Bill Frederick, personal comment, 22 April 2004; see Friend, Blue- Eyed Enemy, pp. 228, 237; Nyoman S. Pendit, Bali Berjuang, 2d ed. (Jakarta: Gunung Agung, 1979; orig. ed., 1954);
  132. Reid, National Revolution, p. 58, n. 25, p. 119, n. 7, p. 120, n. 17, p. 148, nn. 25, 37; Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Koesalah Soebagyo Toer and Ediati Kamil, Kronik Revolusi Indonesia (Jakarta: Kepus- takaan Populer Gramedia, vol. 1, 1945; vol. 2, 1946, 1999; vol. 3, 1947; vol. 4, 1948, 2003);
  133. Ann Stoler, Capitalism and Confrontation in Sumatra's Plantation Belt, 1870-1979 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985), p. 103.
  134. Ni Cenik, interviewed by Cok Sawitri for the Bali Oral History Project; Robert Cribb, 'Political dimensions of the currency question, 1945-1947', Indonesia 31 (April 1981), 113-36.
  135. Schenkuizen, Memoirs, pp. 185-91.
  136. Pramoedya Ananta Toer, 'Dendam', trans, B. R. O'G. Anderson as 'Revenge', in A. L. Becker (ed.), Writing on the Tongue (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989), pp. 15-34; Promoedya, Di Tepi Kali Bekasi (Jakarta: Lentera Dipantara, 2003; orig. ed., Jakarta: Gapura, 1951);
  137. William H. Frederick, 'Shadows of an unseen hand: some patterns of violence in the Indonesian Revolution, 1945-1949', in Freek Colombijn and J. Thomas Lindblad (eds.), Roots of Violence in Indonesia: Contemporary Violence in Historical Perspective (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2002), pp. 143-73.
  138. Reid, National Revolution, ch. 4; Robert Cribb, Gangsters and Revolution- aries: The Jakarta People's Militia and the Indonesian Revolution, 1945-1949 (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991);
  139. Mary Margaret Steedly, Hanging without a Rope: Narrative Experience in Colonial and Postcolonial Karoland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 209-11; Stoler, Capitalism and Con- frontation; Anton Lucas, One Soul, One Struggle: Region and Revolution in Indonesia (St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin, Asian Studies Association of Australia Publications Series 19, 1991).
  140. Pramoedya, Di Tepi Kali Bekasi, p. 27; Frederick, 'The appearance of revolu- tion'; Steedly, Hanging without a Rope.
  141. Interview by Steedley, Hanging without a Rope, p. 210.
  142. Anderson, Java in a Time of Revolution, p. 206.
  143. Sutan Syahrir, Our Struggle, cited in Anderson, Java in a Time of Revolution, p. 191 (emphasis in the original).
  144. In Elizabeth Ann Swift, The Road to Madiun: The Indonesian Communist Uprising of 1948 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program, 1989), pp. 97- 102; alternative trans., Reid, National Revolution, p. 143.
  145. David Charles Anderson, 'The military aspects of the Madiun Affair', Indonesia 21 (April 1976), 1-53; Leclerc, 'Afterword'; George McT. Kahin, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1952), p. 274; Agus Sunyoto Maksum and A. Zainuddin (Tim Penyusun Jawa Pos), Lubang- Lubang Pembantaian: Petualangan PKI di Madiun (Jakarta: Grafiti, 1990), pp. 49, 52, 59.
  146. Pramoedya, 'The vanquished', p. 104; Pramoedya, Mereka Yang Dilumpuhkan (Jakarta: Hasta Mitra, 1995; rev. ed. of 2-vol. orig., Jakarta: Balai Pustaka, 1951). 5 living in the atomic age
  147. Pramoedya Ananta Toer, 'Creatures behind houses', in Tales from Djakarta: Caricatures of Circumstances and Their Human Beings, trans. the Nusantara Translation Group (Jakarta: Equinox, 2000), pp. 183-4.
  148. Following Herbert Feith, The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1962), pp. 100-3; William Frederick, Visions and Heat: The Making of the Indonesian Revolution (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989), where the class is described as the 'New Priyayi'.
  149. Pramoedya Anata Toer, 'My Kampung', in Tales from Djakarta, p. 77 (trans- lation adapted). The name comes from a famous graveyard.
  150. Rn, 'Sedikit tentang kota Djakarta', Harian Rakjat 23 and 25 June 1956.
  151. Sukarno, Lahirnja Pantja-Sila: Bung Karno Menggembleng Dasar-Dasar Neg- ara, 2d ed. (Jogjakarta: Goentoer, 1949) (although this is not the order of the Principles).
  152. Martin Ramstedt, 'Introduction: negotiating identities -Indonesian "Hindus" between local, national, and global interests', in Martin Ramstedt (ed.), Hinduism in Indonesia: A Minority Religion between Local, National, and Global Interests (London: RoudedgeCurzon, 2004), pp. 1-34; Paul Stange, '"Legitimate" mysticism in Indonesia', RIMA 20, 2 (1986), 76-117; Greg Bar- ton, Gus Dur: The Authorized Biography of Abdurrahman Wahid (Jakarta: Equinox, 2002), pp. 41-51; Cees van Dijk, Rebellion under the Banner of Islam: The Darul Islam in Indonesia (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1981), pp. 47-52.
  153. 'SM Kartosoewirjo: pemberontak atau Mujahid?' Suara Hidayatullah, May 1999, www.hidayatullah.com/sahid/9905/sejarah.htm (accessed 3 February 2004);
  154. van Dijk, Rebellion; M. C. Ricklefs, A History of Modern Indonesia (London: Macmillan, 1981; 2d ed., 1993; 3d ed., 2001), p. 227 (which gives 1905 as his year of birth);
  155. Anthony J. S. Reid, Indonesian National Revolu- tion (Hawthorn, VIC: Longman, 1974), pp. 166-7; Feith, Decline; Kathryn Robinson, 'Living in the hutan: jungle village life under the Darul Islam', RIMA 17 (1983), 208-29; Esther Velthoen, 'Mapping Sulawesi in the 1950s', in Henk Schulte Nordholt and Gusti Asnan (eds.), Indonesia in Transition: Work in Progress (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 2003), pp. 103-23; Theodore Friend, The Blue-Eyed Enemy: Japan against the West in Java and Luzon, 1942-1945 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), p. 239.
  156. 'Agama baru di Pasangkaju (Utara Mandar)', Duta Masjarkat, 15 May 1956.
  157. Douglas Miles, Cutlass and Crescent Moon: A Case Study in Social and Political Change in Outer Indonesia (Sydney: University of Sydney, Centre for Asian Studies, 1976).
  158. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays by Clifford Geertz (New York: Basic Books, 1973), p. 150; Paul Stange, 'The Sumarah movement in Javanese mysticism', PhD thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison (1980).
  159. Feith, Decline, pp. 38-45; see also James T. Siegel, Fetish, Recognition, Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997).
  160. An alternative translation of this title can be found as Pramoedya Ananta Toer, 'It's not an all night fair' (trans. William Watson), Indonesia 15 (1973), 21-80.
  161. Donald Hindley, The Communist Party of Indonesia, 1951-1963 (Berkeley: Uni- versity of California Press, 1964), maps 1, 2; J. D. Legge, Central Authority and Regional Autonomy in Indonesia: A Study in Local Administration, 1950-1960 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1961), app.
  162. Feith, Decline, pp. 425-77; 'Hasil resmi pemilihan umum DPR seluruh Indonesia', Duta Masjarakat, 28 January 1956.
  163. Pramoedya Ananta Toer, 'The mastermind', in Tales from Djakarta, p. 217.
  164. Feith, Decline, pp. 306, 312; Legge, Central Authority and Regional Autonomy.
  165. Usmar Ismail (producer and director), Tamu Agung (Perfini Films, 1955) (www.arts.monash.edu.au/mai/films/guest.html); Salim Said, Shadows on the Silver Screen: A Social History of Indonesian Film (Jakarta: Lontar Foundation, 1991); cf. Clifford Geertz, Peddlers and Princes: Social Change and Economic Modernization in Two Indonesian Towns (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), esp. pp. 14-16.
  166. Pikiran Rakjat 1 September 1952, Harian Rakjat 18 December 1954; Duta Masjarakat 24 March 1956.
  167. Sukarno, Speech at the opening of the Bandung Conference, 18 April 1955 (Modern history sourcebook, www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/w'isukarno- bandong.html, accessed 19 May 2004).
  168. I Nyoman Wijaya, '1950s lifestyles in Denpasar through the eyes of short story writers', in Adrian Vickers and I Nyoman Darma Putra with Michele Ford (eds.), To Change Bali: Essays in Honour of I Gusti Ngurah Bagus (Denpasar: Bali Post, 2000), pp. 113-34; and unpublished notes; Feith, Decline, p. 315. See further Bhakti 2, 29 (15 December 1953); Huib Akihary, Architectuur en Stedebouw in Indonesia: 1870-1970 (Zutphen: De Welburg Pers, 1990);
  169. Susan Abeyasekere, Jakarta: A History (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 173-5.
  170. 'Hormatilah lagu kebangsaan kita "Indonesia Raja"', Duta Masjarakat, 28 January 1956; Ngurah W. S., 'Olah raga hanya meluas di kota sadja', Bhakti 2, 29 (15 December 1953); Wijaya unpublished notes.
  171. Pramoedya Ananta Toer, 'Djakarta', written in 1955, published in Almanak Seni, 1957, reproduced at www.radix.net/∼bardsley/prampage.html (accessed 27 January 2004);
  172. Bhakti, 3,1 (1 January 1954), 4-7.
  173. Pramoedya, 'Djakarta'; Abeyasekere, Jakarta, p. 176.
  174. Pikirian Rakjat, 1 September 1952.
  175. Damai 2, 2 (17 January 1955), 10, cited by I Nyoman Darma Putra, Wanita Bali Tempo Doeloe: Perspektif Masa Kini (Denpasar: Bali Jani, 2003), p. 70; Feith, Decline, p. 223.
  176. Keith Foulcher, Social Commitment in Literature and the Arts: The Indonesian 'Institute of Peoples Culture', 1950-1965 (Clayton, VIC: Monash University Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1986), p. 44; see Rn, 'Sedikit tentang kota Djakarta', film advertisements in Duta Masjarakat; Feith, Decline, p. 315 (for 1951-3).
  177. I Nyoman Darma Putra, 'Bali and modern Indonesian literature: the 1950s', in Vickers and Darma Putra (eds.), To Change Bali, pp. 135- 53;
  178. Ruth T. McVey, 'The wayang controversy in Indonesian commun- ism', in M. Hobart and R. H. Taylor (eds.), Context, Meaning and Power in Southeast Asia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Southeast Asia Publica- tions, 1986), pp. 21-53; and Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Nyanyi Sunyi Seor- ang Bisu, vol. 1 (Jakarta: Lentera, 1995). pp. 34-41; not included in the translation by Willem Samuels, The Mute's Soliloquy (New York: Penguin, 1998).
  179. Quotations in preceding paragraphs from Pramoedya, 'Djakarta'; McVey, 'The wayang controversy'; Rn, 'Sedikit tentang kota Djakarta'.
  180. Nj. Jasmine Oka, 'Garis baru bagi perjuangan wanita Indonesia', reproduced in Darma Putra, Wanita Bali, pp. 181-91; Saskia Wieringa, Sexual Politics in Indonesia (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002).
  181. George McT. Kahin, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1952), p. 443.
  182. Howard W. Dick et al, The Emergence of a National Economy: An Economic History of Indonesia, 1800-2000 (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 2001), p. 192; Miles, Cutlass and Crescent Moon.
  183. Duta Masjarakat, 5 January 1956; Feith, Decline, pp. 556-69; Dick et al, Emergence, pp. 153-9.
  184. Duta Masjarakat, 1 July 1956.
  185. A. H. Nasution, Sekitar Perang Kemerdekaan Indonesia, 11 vols. (Bandung: Angkasa, 1977-9), vol. 8, p. 64; Made Arja, 'Seorang pegawai rumah pendjara' (in column 'Suka-Duka'), Bhakti 3, 1 (1 January 1954); Geoffrey Robinson, The Dark Side of Paradise: Political Violence in Bali (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995), pp. 236-8 (note that his rice prices are higher than Arja's);
  186. Jan Elliott, 'Bersatoe kita berdiri bertjerai kita djatoeh [United we stand, divided we fall]: workers and unions in Jakarta, 1945-1965', PhD thesis, University of New South Wales (1997), pp. 31, 144, 176-7, 189; Jan Elliott, 'Equality? The influence of legislation and notions of gender on the position of women wage workers in the economy: Indonesia, 1950-58', in Jean Gelman Taylor (ed.), Women Creating Indonesia: The First Fifty Years (Clayton, VIC: Monash Asia Institute, 1997), pp. 127-55.
  187. Duta Masjarakat, 7 January 1956.
  188. Nya 'Abbas Akup (director and writer, producer Usmar Ismail), Tiga Bur- onan (Jakarta: Perfini Films, 1957);
  189. D. Djajakusuma (producer and director), Harimau Tjampa (Jakarta: Perfini Films, 1953), www.arts.monash.edu.au/ mai/films/tiger.html.
  190. E.g., Marsidik [?], Buku Kenangan, 1950-1958 (n.p.: Pusat Pendidikan Peralatan Angkatan Datat, n.d.).
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  193. Audrey Kahin, Rebellion to Integration: West Sumatra and the Indonesian Polity (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1999);
  194. Audrey R. Kahin and George McT. Kahin, Subversion as Foreign Policy: The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia (New York: New Press, 1995).
  195. Cited in Herbert Feith, The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1962), pp. 606-7.
  196. Dennis Julius Cohen, 'Poverty and development in Jakarta', PhD thesis, Uni- versity of Wisconsin, Madison (1975), pp. 131-58.
  197. Savitri Scherer, 'From culture to politics: the writings of Pramoedya A. Toer, 1950-1965', PhD thesis, Australian National University (1981), esp. p. 22.
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  199. J. D. Legge, Central Authority and Regional Autonomy in Indonesia: A Study in Local Administration, 1950-1960 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1961); see also comments in Herbert Feith, 'John Legge and Cornell', in David P. Chandler and M. C. Ricklefs (eds.), Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Indonesia: Essays in Honour of Professor J. D. Legge (Clayton, VIC: Monash University Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1986), pp. 83-95.
  200. David Jenkins, Suharto and His Generals: Indonesian Military Politics, 1975-1983 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1984), p. 207.
  201. See Charles Coppel, Indonesian Chinese in Crisis (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1983);
  202. Richard Robison, Indonesia: The Rise of Capital (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1986), pp. 39-53; Max Lane, 'Introduction to the translation of Pramoedya Ananta Toer's "Hoakiau di Indonesia" ' (2008).
  203. Tudjuh Bahan Pokok Indoktrinasi, dengan Tambahan Re-So-Pim, Tahun Kemenangan, Genta Suara Revolusi Indonesia (Surabaya: Pertjetakan Neg- ara d/h Pers Nasional, n.d.);
  204. Sukarno, Dibawah Bendera Revolusi, 2 vols. (2d ed.,Djakarta: Panitia Penerbit, 1965); Berdikari was the 17 August 1965 speech. Thanks to Susanna Rizzo for the Italian link, which Robert Martens also notes as coming from a poem by d'Annunzio, The Indonesian Turn- ing Point (unpublished ms., Sydney eScholarship Repository, 2012, http: //ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/8145, p. 121).
  205. Klaus Schreiner, 'The making of national heroes: Guided Democracy to New Order, 1959-1992', in Henk Schulte Nordholt (ed.), Outward Appearances: Dressing State and Society in Indonesia (Leiden: KITLV, 1997), pp. 259-90.
  206. See Susan Abeyasekere, Jakarta: A History (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 163, 170; Philip Kitley, Television, Nation, and Culture in Indonesia (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2000).
  207. Anne Booth, The Indonesian Economy in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century: A History of Missed Opportunity (Basingstoke/Canberra: Macmillan/Australian National University, 1998), p. 177; Robison, Indonesia, pp. 74-7.
  208. Howard W. Dick et al., The Emergence of a National Economy: An Economic History of Indonesia, 1800-2000 (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 2001), p. 192.
  209. Lea Jellinek, The Wheel of Fortune: The History of a Poor Community in Jakarta (London: Allen & Unwin, 1991), p. 14.
  210. Malcolm Caldwell and Ernst Utrecht, Indonesia: An Alternative History (Sydney: Alternative Publishing Cooperative, 1979), p. 117; Carol Warren, Adat and Dinas: Balinese Communities in the Indonesian State (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 328; Duta Masjarakat, 9 July 1965 and 27 July 1965, also Cohen, 'Poverty and development', p. 20.
  211. Pramudya [sic] Ananta Toer, 'Hamka: pencipta djalan keneraka', Bintang Timur, 27 May 1959; Keith Foulcher, Social Commitment in Literature and the Arts: The Indonesian 'Institute of People's Culture', 1950-1965 (Clayton, VIC: Monash University Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1986), p. 117.
  212. Foulcher, Social Commitment; on CIA cultural program funding, see M. Dwi Marianto, Surealisme Yogyakarta (Yogyakarta: Merapi, 2001), ch. 3; Taufiq, cited by Gunawan Mohamad, 'Dari "Bumi Manusia" ', in Adhy Asmara, Analisa Ringan Kemelut Roman Karya Pulau Bum Bumi Manusia Pramoedya Ananta Toer (Yogyakarta: Nurcahaya, 1981), p. 79.
  213. Rex Mortimer, Indonesian Communism under Sukarno (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974); quotation from my confidential interviews.
  214. Figures from Caldwell and Utrecht, Indonesia, p. 113; Fadjar Pratikto, Gerakan Rakyat Kelaparan: Gagalnya Politik Radikalisasi Petani (Yogyakarta: Media Pressindo, 2000), esp. pp. 123-9; Cees van Dijk, Rebellion under the Banner of Islam: The Darul Islam in Indonesia (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1981), p. 379.
  215. Interview by Andre Liem, 'Perjuangan bersenjata PKI di Blitar Selatan dan Operasi Trisula', in John Roosa, Ayu Ratih and Hilmar Farid (eds.), Tahun yang Tak Pernah Berakhir: Memahami Pengalaman Korban 65. Esai-esai Sejarah Lisan (Jakarta: Lembaga Studi dan Advokasi Masyarakat, 2004), pp. 163-200, p. 169.
  216. For the different theories on the events of 30 September, see John Roosa, Pretext for Mass Murder: The September 30th Movement and Suharto's Coup d' État in Indonesia (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2006), but see also Martens, The Indonesian Turning Point. On the Women's Movement see Saskia Wieringa, Sexual Politics in Indonesia (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002).
  217. See Audrey Kahin, Rebellion to Integration: West Sumatra and the Indonesian Polity (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1999), ch. 10.
  218. Robert Cribb (ed.), The Indonesian Killings, 1965-1966: Studies from Java and Bali (Clayton, VIC: Monash University Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1990); further details on the coup and killings can be found in Edward C. Keefer (ed.), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. 26: Indonesia;
  219. Malaysia-Singapore; Philippines (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 2001), pp. 142-339.
  220. A. A. M. Djelantik, The Birthmark: Memoirs of a Balinese Prince (Singapore: Periplus, 1997), pp. 299-301.
  221. Harold Crouch, The Army and Politics in Indonesia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978);
  222. Geoffrey Robinson, The Dark Side of Paradise: Polit- ical Violence in Bali (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995);
  223. Hermawan Sulistyo, Palu Arit di Ladang Tebu: Sejarah Pembantaian Massal yang Ter- lupakan (Jakarta: Gramedia, 2000);
  224. David Mitchell, 'Communists, mystics and Sukarnoism', Dissent 22 (Autumn 1968), 28-32; Cribb (ed.), Indonesian Killings.
  225. Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Nyanyi Sunyi Seorang Bisu, 2 vols. (Jakarta: Lentera, 1995, 1997), vol. 1, pp. 125-32 (not all of which is in the translation).
  226. Crouch, The Army and Politics.
  227. R. E. Elson, Suharto: A Political Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 60-6, 71-4.
  228. Biographical details from Peter Polomka, Indonesia since Sukarno (Har- mondsworth: Penguin, 1971), pp. 133ff.; additional information can be found in David Jenkins, Suharto and His Generals: Indonesian Military Politics, 1975-1983 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1984), p. 70; Soemitro, Pangkopkamtib Jenderal Soemitro dan Peristiwa 15 Januaryi 74, as told to Heru Cahyono (Jakarta: Sinar Harapan, 1998), pp. 281-307.
  229. On the changing role of Functional Groups, see David Reeve, Golkar of Indone- sia: An Alternative to the Party System (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1985);
  230. Murtopo, quoted in David Bourchier and Vedi R. Hadiz, Indonesian Politics and Society: A Reader (London: RoudedgeCurzon, 2003), pp. 34-6, 43-9,110-12; Jacques Leclerc, 'An ideological problem of Indonesian trade unionism in the sixties: "karyawan" versus "buruh" ' (trans. P. A. Wallace), RIMA 6, 1 (1972), 76-91; Ken Ward, The 1971 Elections in Indonesia: An East Javanese Case Study (Clayton, VIC: Monash University Papers on Southeast Asia 2, 1974), p. 37.
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  232. US embassy cable, cited in Robinson, Dark Side, p. 284. For further details on the US view of events, see Bradley R. Simpson, Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Developments and US-Indonesian Relations, 1960-1968 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008).
  233. Dick et al., Emergence, pp. 195-206;
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  235. My thanks to Diane Galung for information on Jakarta circa 1968; see also Suzan Piper and Sawung Jabo, 'Indonesian music from the 50s to the 80s', Prisma 43 (March 1987), 24-37; the 'honeymoon' term was coined by the late Umar Kayam; Salim Said, Shadows on the Silver Screen: A Social History of Indonesian Film (Jakarta: Lontar Foundation, 1991), ch. 6.
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  239. Soemitro, Pengkopkamtib; Soehario Padmodiwirio, Memoar Hario Kecik, 2 vols. (Jakarta: Obor, 1996, 2001), vol. 2, pp. 278-9. 7 terror and development in happy land
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  243. Rob Goodfellow, Api dalam Sekam: The New Order and the Ideology of Anti-Communism (Working Paper 95, Clayton, VIC: Monash Uni- versity Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1995);
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  630. Zoete, Beryl de, and Spies, Walter, Dance and Drama in Bali (London: Faber and Faber, 1938; rpt. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1973).
  631. Zurbuchen, Mary, 'Images of culture and national development in Indonesia: the Cockroach Opera, Asian Theatre Journal 7, 2 (Fall 1990), 127-49.
  632. Australia, 14, 31, 90-1, 97, 111, 115, 149, 172, 202, 218-20 Australian Embassy bombing 2004, 222
  633. Australian military, 90, 91, 101, 102 Australians in Bali bombing, 222-3
  634. Bakin, see BIN Bakrie, Aburizal, 230-1
  635. Bali, 21, 22, 30, 47, 60, 62, 71-2, 84, 85, 103, 122, 132-3, 135, 141, 159, 161, 163-4, 198, 217-18, 229, 232 bombings, 184, 222, 223
  636. North, see Singaraja South, 14, see also Denpasar tourism in, 196, 204, 215, 225
  637. Balikpapan, 91
  638. Bal Tiga, see Three Balls Banda, 85, 238
  639. Bandung, 43, 67, 74, 82, 88, 100, 104, 220, 237
  640. Bandung Conference, 130
  641. Bangka, 53, 64
  642. Banjarmasin, 54
  643. Basyir, Abu Bakar, 184, 221-2 Batak region and people, 23, 47, 53, 60, 109
  644. Batam, 196, 205, 215
  645. Batavia, see Jakarta batik, 2, 27, 36, 41, 55, 66, 67, 68, 76, 96, 140, 189 Beauty (Permai) movement, 124 becak, 74, 96, 133, 196, 197
  646. Belitung, 53, 64 'Bengawan Solo', 72
  647. Bengkalis, 138
  648. Bengkulu, 85, 119, 237
  649. Berkeley Mafia, 168
  650. Bhakti, see Devotion
  651. Index Mangunwijaya, Romo, 6-7
  652. Manikebu, see Cultural Manifesto MANIPOL-Usdek, 146
  653. Marco Kartodikromo, Mas, 72, 75, 77, 79, 82, 123, 157
  654. Marriott Hotel bombings, 222-3
  655. Marsinah, 198, 201, 215
  656. Marxism, 23, 83, 85, 120, 123, 124, 172, 179, see also Communist Party of Indonesia 'Mastermind', 128
  657. Masyumi, 126-7, 143-4, 238-9
  658. Medan, 61, 88, 232 medicine, see health care Megawati, 208, 211, 226, 227, 228, 231, 233, 241-2 Menada, see Manado Menteng suburb, 121 Menteng 31 boarding house, 98-9, 100, 164, 244 military, colonial, 11, 13, 14, 15, 26, 66, 90, 92 'Coup' of 1965 and, 147, 160-5, 167, 177, 237 creation of, 109-10, 243 demobilisation, 143 in Guided Democracy, 144, 148-9, 154, 160
  659. Indonesian, 123, 239-40 in the Indonesian Revolution, 105, 106, 107, 109-14, 115-16, 123
  660. Japanese influence, 97 in the New Order, 166-9, 171, 172, 175, 177-8, 180, 181, 182, 184, 185-6, 195, 202 in the 1950s, 141-3, 145, 244 in the Reform era, 211, 216-17, 218, 220, 221-3, 224, 225-6, 228, 231-2, 234, 242 militias, 160, 162-3, 220 in East Timor, 218-20 in the Indonesian Revolution, 97, 100, 107, 109, 111-12, 116, 164
  661. Muslim, 109, 113-14, 218
  662. Minahasa, see Manado Minangkabau, 50, 53, 56, 57, 68, 77, 85, 93, 98, 141, 189, 232, 238, 243
  663. Misrad, Muhammad, 210
  664. Moluccas, see Maluku monetary policy, 54, 105, 138, 155-6, 169, 225
  665. Morotai, 100 motorbikes, 133, 181
  666. Mountbatten, Lord, 100, 103 MPR, see People's Consultative Assembly Muhammadiyah, 57-8, 206, 239, 243
  667. Muhdi Akbar, 56
  668. Muis, Abdul, 79, 81, 85, 151
  669. Munir, Said Thalib, 223
  670. Murdani, Benny, 244
  671. Murtopo, Ali, 165-9, 171-2, 179, 181, 182-3, 192, 244 Muso, 111-14
  672. Mute's Soliloquy, A, 5, 92
  673. My Sky, My Home, 197
  674. Mysterious Killings, 181
  675. Nahdlatul Ulama, (NU), 58, 95, 122, 126-7, 159, 162, 184-5, 241
  676. Nasakom, 150
  677. Nasution, Abdul Haris, 110-14, 138, 141, 144, 145, 149, 160-1, 165, 190, 203, 243-4 National Army of Indonesia, see military nationalism, 34-5, 61-2, 74-81, 82-6, 87-8, 96, 102, 121, 142, 143, 183, 214, 220, see also Independence; NASAKOM Nationalist Party, 126-7, 149, 156-9, 163, 167, 239 nationalist movement, see nationalism National Party, 84, 237, 238 National Socialism, 28
  678. Natsir, Mohammad, 239
  679. Netherlands, see Dutch Netherlands East Indies, 2, 9-31 administration, 15, 21, 24, 37, 40, 63, 66, 73
  680. Netherlands Indies Civil Administration (NICA), 103, 108-9, 115-16
  681. Netherlands New Guinea, see Irian New Art Movement (Gerakan Sent Rupa Baru Indonesia), 179
  682. New Order, 5, 7, 165-201, 202-10, 218, 220, 226-8, 231-2, 238, 239, 240, 244 newspapers, 13, 17, 40, 43, 63-4, 67, 70, 72-3, 77-80, 97, 102, 123, 129-33, 150, 157, 161, 179-80, 212, 218, 228
  683. Ngendon, I Nyoman, 62
  684. Nieuwenhuys, Rob, 26 ninjas, 216
  685. Nitisemito, 68
  686. NGOs, see non-governmental organisations Non-Aligned Movement, see Bandung Conference non-governmental organisations, 201, 204, 206, 207, 214, 215, 234
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