References (61)
Artzy, M., 2006. The Jatt Metal Hoard in Northern Canaanite/Phoenician and Cypriote Context. Cuadernos de Arqueología Mediterránea 14. Laboratorio de Arqueología de la Univrsidad Pompeu Fabra de Barcelona, Barcelona.Ashkenazi, D., Iddan, N., Tal, O., 2012. Archaeometallurgical characterization of Hellenistic metal objects: the contribution of the bronze objects from Rishon Le-Zion (Israel). Archaeometry 54 (3), 528-548.Bandyopadhyay, B., Mishra, D., Bhattacharyya, A., Mallik, M., 2015. Modification of the cast structure in a Cu-12.6 Wt Pct Sn alloy by heat treatment in the semisolid state. Metall. Mater. Trans. B 46 (5), 2062-2071.Barrena, M.I., Gómez de Salazar, J.M., Soria, A., 2008. Corrosion of brass archaeological blinker: characterisation of natural degradation process. Mater. Lett. 62, 3944-3946.Bass, G.F., 1967. Cape Gelidonya: A Bronze Age Shipwreck. Trans Am Phil Soc 57.8. The American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.Bonn, A.G., Moyer, H., Notis, M.R., 1993. The typology and archaeometallurgy of the copper-base artifacts. In: James, F.W., McGovern, P.E. (Eds.), The Late Bronze Egyptian Garrison at Beth Shan: A Study of Levels VII and VIII. University Museum Monograph 85. The University Museum University of Pennsylvania in cooperation with University of Mississippi, Philadelphia, pp. 203-220.Bottaini, C., Mirão, J., Figuereido, M., Candeias, A., Brunetti, A., Schiavon, N., 2015. Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy/Monte Carlo simulation approach for the non-destructive analysis of corrosion patina-bearing alloys in archaeological bronzes: the case of the bowl from the Fareleira 3 site (Vidigueira, South Portugal). Spectrochim. Acta B At. Spectrosc. 103, 9-13.Brandl, B., Bunimovitz, S., Lederman, Z., 2013. Beth-Shemesh and Sellopoullo: two com- memorative scarabs of Amenhotep III and their contribution to Aegean chronology. Annual of the British School at Athens 108, pp. 67-95.Bunimovitz, S., Lederman, Z., 2009. The archaeology of border communities. Tel Beth- Shemesh renewed excavations, part 1: the Iron Age. Near Eastern Archaeology 72.3, pp. 116-144.Bunimovitz, S., Lederman, Z., 2012. Iron Age iron: from invention to innovation. In: Webb, J.M., Frankel, D. (Eds.), Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology: Fifty Years OnStudies in Mediterranean Archaeology 137. Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, pp. 103-112.Bunimovitz, S., Lederman, Z., Hatzaki, E., 2013. Knossian gifts? Two Late Minoan IIIA1 cups from Tel Beth-Shemesh, Israel. The Annual of the British School at Athens 108, pp. 51-66.Catling, H.W., 1964. Cypriote Bronzework in the Mycenaean World. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Charalambous, A., Kassianidou, V., Papasavvas, G., 2014. A compositional study of Cypriot bronzes dating to the early iron age using portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (pXRF). J. Archaeol. Sci. 46, 205-216.Constantinou, G., 1982. Geological features and ancient exploitation of the cupriferous sulphide orebodies of Cyprus. In: Muhly, J.D., Maddin, R., Karageorghis, V. (Eds.), Early Metallurgy in Cyprus, 4000-500 B.C.Pierides Foundation and Department of Antiquities of Cyprus, Nicosia, pp. 13-23Craddock, P.T., Meeks, N.D., 1987. Iron in Ancient copper. Archaeometry 29, 187-204.Dilo, T., Civici, N., Stamati, F., Cakaj, O., Angelopoulos, A., 2010. Archaeometallurgical Char- acterization of Some Ancient Copper and Bronze Artifacts from Albania. Aip Confer- ence Proceedings 1203.1, p. 985 (January).El Morr, Z., Pernot, M., 2011. Middle Bronze Age metallurgy in the Levant: evidence from the weapons of Byblos. J. Archaeol. Sci. 38, 2613-2624.Figueiredo, E., Silva, R.J., Araújo, M.F., Senna-Martinez, J.C., 2010. Identification of ancient gilding technology and Late Bronze Age metallurgy by EDXRF, micro-EDXRF, SEM- EDS and metallographic techniques. Microchim. Acta 168 (3-4), 283-291.Frahm, E., 2013. Validity of "off-the-shelf" handheld portable XRF for sourcing Near East- ern obsidian chip debris. J. Archaeol. Sci. 40 (2), 1080-1092.Gershuny, L., 1985. Bronze Vessels From Israel and Jordan (Prähistorische Bronzfunde II.6). C.H. Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, München.Gershuny, L., 2002. The bronze vessels. In: Biran, A., Ben-Dov, R. (Eds.), Dan II: A Chronicle of the Excavation and the Late Bronze Age "Mycenaean" Tomb. Annual of the Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology, Hebrew Union College. Jewish Institute of Re- ligion, Jerusalem, pp. 200-208.Giumlia-Mair, A.R., 2005. Copper and copper alloys in the southeastern Alps: an overview. Archaeometry 47 (2), 275-292.Gouda, V.K., Youssef, G.I., Abdel Ghany, N.A., 2012. Characterization of Egyptian bronze ar- chaeological artifacts. Surf. Interface Anal. 44 (10), 1338-1345.Graedel, T.E., 1987. Copper patinas formed in the atmosphere-II. A qualitative assessment of mechanism. Corros. Sci. 27, 721-740.Grant, E., 1932. Ain Shems excavations (Palestine) 1928-1929-1930-1931. Part II. Haverford College, Haverford.Hunt, L.B., 1980. The long history of lost wax casting. Gold Bull. 13 (2), 63-79.Ingo, G.M., De Caro, T., Riccucci, C., Angelini, E., Grassini, S., Balbi, S., Bernardini, P., Salvi, D., Bousselmi, L., Çilingiroglu, A., Gener, M., Gouda, V.K., Al Jarrah, O., Khosroff, S., Mahdjoub, Z., Al Saad, Z., El-Saddik, W., Vassiliou, P., 2006. Large scale investigation of chemical composition, structure and corrosion mechanism of bronze archeological artefacts from Mediterranean Basin. Appl. Phys. A 83 (4), 513-520.Kearns, T., Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, T., 2010. Metal to mould: alloy identification in experimental casting moulds using XRF. Hist. Metall. 44, 48-58.Kienlin, T.L., Bischoff, E., Opielka, H., 2006. Copper and bronze during the Eneolithic and early Bronze Age: a Metallographic examination of axes from the North Alpine Re- gion. Archaeometry 48 (3), 453-468.Larson, T.S., 2009. Experiments Concerning the Mold Materials Used in the Production of the Copper Ingots From the Late Bronze Age Shipwreck Excavated at Uluburun, Turkey Doctoral dissertation Texas A&M University.Levy, T.E., Ben-Yosef, E., Najjar (Eds.), 2014. New Insights into the Iron Age Archaeology of Edom, Southern Jordan. UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, Los Angeles.Macalister, R.A.S., 1912. The Excavation of Gezer II. John Murray, London.Mackenzie, D., 1912-1913. Excavations at Ain Shems (Beth-Shemesh). Palestine Explora- tion Fund Annual, p. 2.Maryon, H., 1949. Metal working in the ancient world. Am. J. Archaeol. 93-125.Meeks, N.D., 1986. Tin-rich surfaces on bronze -some experimental and archaeological considerations. Archaeometry 28 (2), 133-162.Miron, E., 1992. Axes and Adzes from Canaan (Prähistorische Bronzfunde IX.19). Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart.Nerantzis, N., 2012. Shaping Bronze by Heat and Hammer: An Experimental Reproduction of Minoan Copper Alloy Forming Techniques. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 12, pp. 237-247.Orfanou, V., Rehren, T., 2014. A (not so) dangerous method: pXRF vs. EPMA-WDS analy- ses of copper-based artefacts. Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. 1-11.Oudbashi, O., Emami, S.M., Malekzadeh, M., Hassanpour, A., Davami, P., 2013. Archaeometallurgical studies on the bronze vessels from "Sangtarashan", Luristan, W-Iran. Iran. Antiq. 48, 147-174.Pelleg, J., Baram, J., Oren, E., 1979. An investigation of bronze artifacts from the North Sinai Coast and the Nile Delta Region. Metallography 12, 313-324.Pernicka, E., 1999. Trace element fingerprinting of ancient copper: a guide to technology or provenance? In: Young, S.M.M., Pollard, A.M., Budd, P., Ixer, R.A. (Eds.), Metals in AntiquityBar International Series 792. Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 163-171Ponting, M.J., Segal, I., 1998. ICP-AES analyses of roman military copper-alloy artefacts from the excavations at Masada, Israel. Archaeometry 40 (1), 109-122.Reardon, A.C. (Ed.), 2011. Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist. ASM International.Scott, D.A., 1990. Bronze disease: a review of some chemical problems and the role of rel- ative humidity. J. Am. Inst. Conserv. 29 (2), 193-206.Scott, D.A., 1991. Metallography and Microstructure of Ancient and Historic Metals. The Getty Conservation Institute and J. Paul Getty Trust (Archetype Books, CA).Shalev, S., 1993. Metal production and society at Tel Dan. Biblical Archaeology Today, Pro- ceedings of the Second International Congress on Biblical Archaeology. Israel Explora- tion Society, Jerusalem, pp. 57-65 (Supplement).Shalev, S., Caspi, E.N., Shilstein, S., Paradowska, A.M., Kockelmann, W., Kan-Cipor Meron, T., Levy, Y., 2014. Middle Bronze Age II battleaxes from Rishon LeZion, Israel: archae- ology and metallurgy. Archaeometry 56 (2), 279-295.Shugar, A.N., 2013. Portable X-ray fluorescence and archaeology: limitations of the instru- ment and suggested methods to achieve desired results. In: Armitage, R.A., Burton, J.H. (Eds.), Archaeological Chemistry VIII. American Chemical Society, Washington DC, pp. 173-193.Speakman, R.J., Shackley, M.S., 2013. Silo science and portable XRF in archaeology: a re- sponse to frahm. J. Archaeol. Sci. 40 (2), 1435-1443.Srinivasan, S., 1998. The use of tin and bronze in prehistoric southern Indian metallurgy. JOM J. Miner. Met. Mater. Soc. 44-49 (July).Tylecote, R.F., 1982. The Late Bronze Age: copper and bronze metallurgy at Enkomi and Kition. In: Muhly, J.D., Maddin, R., Karageorghis, V. (Eds.), Early Metallurgy in Cyprus, 4000-500 B.C. Pierides Foundation and Department of Antiquities of Cyprus, Nicosia, pp. 81-100.Tylecote, R.F., 1987. The Early History of Metallurgy in Europe. Addison-Wesley Longman, London.Tylecote, R.F., 1992. A History of Metallurgy. The Metals Society, London.Valério, P., Silva, R.J.C., Araújo, M.F., Soares, A.M.M., Barros, L., 2012. A multianalytical ap- proach to study the Phoenician bronze technology in the Iberian Peninsula-a view from Quinta do Almaraz. Mater. Charact. 67, 74-82.Valério, P., Soares, A.M.M., Silva, R.J., Araújo, M.F., Rebelo, P., Neto, N., Santos, R., Fontes, T., 2013. Bronze production in southwestern Iberian Peninsula: the Late Bronze Age metallurgical workshop from Entre Águas 5 (Portugal). J. Archaeol. Sci. 40 (1), 439-451.Valério, P., Soares, A.M.M., Araújo, M.F., Silva, R.J., Porfírio, E., Serra, M., 2014. Arsenical copper and bronze in middle bronze age burial sites of southern Portugal: the first bronzes in southwestern Iberia. J. Archaeol. Sci. 42, 68-80.Vale'rio, P., Silva, R.J.C., Soares, A.M.M., Arau'jo, M.F., Fernandes, F.M.B., Silva, A.C., Berrocal-Rangel, L., 2010. Technological continuity in Early Iron Age Bronze metallur- gy at the south-western Iberian Peninsula-a sight from Castro dos Ratinhos. J. Archaeol. Sci. 37, 1811-1819.Waldbaum, J.C., 1978. From Bronze to Iron: The Transition From the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 54. Paul Åströms förla, Götenborg.Yahalom-Mack, N., 2009. Bronze in the Beginning of the Iron Age in the Land of Israel: Production and Utilization in a Diverse Ethno-Political Setting Doctoral dissertation Hebrew University of Jerusalem.Yahalom-Mack, N., Eliyahu-Behar, A., 2015. The transition from bronze to iron in Canaan: chronology, technology, and context. Radiocarbon 57, 285-305.Yahalom-Mack, N., Galili, E., Segal, I., Eliyahu-Behar, A., Boaretto, E., Shilstein, S., Finkelstein, I., 2014. New insights into Levantine copper trade: analysis of ingots from the bronze and iron ages in Israel. J. Archaeol. Sci. 45, 159-177.
![Fig. 6. XRD results of two small corroded pieces that had fallen from the hoe: (a) the first broken piece was composed of copper oxide (CuO) and copper-chloride-oxide [Cu2Cl(OH)3]; and (b) the second broken piece was composed of copper-chloride-oxide.](https://figures.academia-assets.com/48446443/figure_006.jpg)
![Fig. 9. A four-sided open stone mould used for casting bronze artefacts from Gezer [IAA No: S-597, site: Gezer, T. (1430/0), photos by Meidad Suchowolski, courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority]: (a) large axe negative; and (b) small axe negative. The axe was manufactured by a mould casting process to its general shape, and essentially may be considered as an as-cast object, although dendritic microstructure was not observed. (Nevertheless, remains of dendritic microstructure may exist in some areas of the axe.) After cast- ing and metal solidification, the axe was probably subjected to some metal post-cast reshaping and surface finishing operations, into the de- sired final shape, most likely by cold-forging and annealing cycles. The inclusions and porosity within the cast alloy were forced to flow and partially close, improving the tool's mechanical properties (Shalev et al., 2014: 285). The wear marks observed by VT on its curved edge may indicate that the axe was used as a working tool.](https://figures.academia-assets.com/48446443/figure_009.jpg)
