Problems of fuel ethanol production have been the subject of numerous reports, including this analysis. The conclusions are that ethanol: does not improve U.S. energy security; is uneconomical; is not a renewable energy source; and increases environmental degradation. Ethanol production is wasteful of energy resources and does not increase energy security. Considerably more energy, much of it high- grade fossil fuels, is required to produce ethanol than is available in the energy output. About 72% more energy (...) is used to produce a gallon of ethanol than the energy in a gallon of ethanol. Ethanol production from corn is not renewable energy. Its production uses more non- renewable fossil energy resources in growing the corn and in the fermentation/distillation process than is produced as ethanol energy. Ethanol produced from corn and other food crops is also an unreliable and therefore a non-secure source of energy, because of the likelihood of uncontrollable climatic fluctuations, particularly droughts which reduce crop yields. The expected priority for corn and other food crops would be for food and feed. Increasing ethanol production would increase degradation of agricultural land and water and pollute the environment. In U.S. corn production, soil erodes some 18- times faster than soil is reformed, and, where irrigated, corn production mines water faster than recharge of aquifers. Increasing the cost of food and diverting human food resources to the costly and inefficient production of ethanol fuel raise major ethical questions. These occur at a time when more food is needed to meet the basic needs of a rapidly growing world population. (shrink)

Energy is the lifeblood of modern society, and industrial nations are largely dependent on oil to maintain global trade and economic activity. Highly mechanized agriculture is no exception. Without transformative changes, we will eventually reach the age of “peak oil,” the point at which the volume of global oil production begins to decline. In response, federal programs have promoted a shift to liquid biofuels and biomass energy derived from farms. The Renewable Fuel Standard created by the Energy Policy Act of (...) 2005 and expanded by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, for instance, boosted production by mandating that up to 36 billion gallons of ethanol be blended into gasoline by 2022. This figure includes allocations for cellulosic ethanol, biomass-based diesel, and advanced biofuel. The Energy Independence and Security Act: Charting a New Direction for America’s Energy Policy,” United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, web edition, accessed September 21, 2011. But through various Farm Bills, taxpayers have been investing in this industry for decades via corn subsidies, import tariffs, tax credits for every gallon of ethanol blended with gasoline, loan guarantees, construction cost shares, and gas pump upgrades. This excess of cheap agricultural products has driven much of the increase in ethanol production. And for politicians and lobbyists, ethanol became a sacred cow, untouchable, because of beliefs that these public investments would (1) support farmers, (2) reduce dependence on foreign oil (currently about 25 percent of US petroleum consumption—a record low in recent decades US Energy Information Administration, “Oil: Crude and Petroleum Products Explained,” updated May 8, 2017, https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=oil_imports.), (3) cut greenhouse gas emissions, and (4) strengthen national defense. (shrink)

The SARS-CoV-2 virus caused the 2019 COVID pandemic by infecting almost eight hundred million people worldwide. Because it was a new viral infection, there were no vaccines or small molecule medications that could prevent or treat the disease. This chapter provides some details for an obscure treatment for COVID-19, that has decades of anti-viral activity data both in vitro and in vivo in the literature. The medicinal molecules are compared to other small molecules that were identified as possible medications for (...) COVID-19. We developed a computational method that ranks small molecules and their ability to penetrate mucus in the lungs of a COVID-19 patient. Our focus is ethanol as a COVID-19 treatment. The results discussed here are based on Lipinski Rules and QSAR computational methods as well as in vitro and in vivo data. These parameters indicate that ethanol should be a strong candidate for future evaluations. (shrink)

As shortages of fossil energy, especially oil and natural gas, become evident, the United States has moved to convert corn grain into ethanol with the goal to make the nation oil independent. Using more than 20% of all U.S. corn on 15 million acres in 2007 was providing the nation with less than 1% of U.S. oil consumption. Because the corn ethanol project has been a disaster, there is growing interest to develop cellulosic ethanol. Wood, grasses, and (...) crop residues are being proposed as sources for ethanol fuel. Though it may seem beneficial to use renewable plant materials for biofuel, the use of crop residues and other biomass for biofuels raises major concerns about energy balance, food security, and environmental problems. (shrink)

Lifecycle assessment (LCA) is a valuable tool in teaching green engineering and has been used to assess biofuels, including ethanol. An undergraduate engineering course at Duke University has integrated LCA with other interactive teaching techniques to enhance awareness and to inform engineering decision making related to societal issues, such as energy sources and environmental quality. The course also includes a three-part studio beginning with application of thermodynamics, moving to team projects, and ending with a “green” innovation proposal by each (...) student. Students who participated in this interactive series were able to apply LCA to venues beyond biofuels (e.g., computing and brick making). They were also able to consider societal and geopolitical aspects of complex issues, such as comparing benefits to costs and risks associated with increased production of ethanol on decreased food production and environmental impacts. (shrink)

Recent research exposing environmental and social externalities of biofuels has undermined the earlier national consensus that they would provide climate mitigation and rural development benefits, but support for ethanol remains strong in Iowa. The objective of this paper is to understand how stakeholder groups in Iowa have framed the benefits and risks associated with ethanol’s impact on the local economy and environment. Our case study draws on in-depth, semi-structured interviews conducted with key informants from agricultural organizations, environmental organizations, (...) and government departments in the state. We find that in Iowa, widespread support for ethanol production exists among government, energy, and farm groups, and that they frame ethanol production as economically beneficial to rural communities and agriculture, while minimizing the possibility of associated environmental risks. Although participants from environmental organizations in Iowa express apprehension about the environmental impacts of expanded corn ethanol production, their unease is muted in relation to economic benefits and in relation to other environmental issues, and few have publicly voiced their concerns. To understand these findings, we draw from the environmental sociology literature that examines the role of powerful natural resource interests in framing the importance of resource extraction and commodity production to community identity and economy and in delegitimizing and naturalizing associated environmental issues and problems. We argue that powerful natural resource interests in Iowa both naturalize environmental problems related to ethanol production and engage in diversionary reframing to emphasize the economic benefits while minimizing or rejecting the potential environmental risks. (shrink)

The effect of septal lesions on consumption of a sucrose solution containing 4.75% ethanol was assessed using two-bottle and one-bottle tests. Septal and control rats showed very similar levels of alcohol consumption in both tests. During two-bottle testing, both groups demonstrated a clear preference for sucrose solution. During the 15-min one-bottle test, alcohol intake was substantial (means = 2.93 and 2.95 ml/kg) and produced obvious symptoms of inebriation. It is concluded that self-administration of ethanol under these conditions is (...) an appropriate method for brief studies of septal-ethanol interactions. (shrink)

The effect of food deprivation on proportional and milliliter per kilogram (ml/kg) intake of an ethanol solution (10%) was investigated in male and female rats utilizing two-bottle preference tests. Prior to food deprivation, there were no sex differences in either proportional or ml/kg ethanol consumption. Deprivation increased proportional and ml/kg ethanol consumption in both sexes during four 2-day preference tests. Males, however, showed significantly greater proportional, but not ml/kg, ethanol intake than females during deprivation. After returning (...) to ad-lib weights, proportional and ml/kg intake by males remained significantly higher than predeprivation levels. Females, in contrast, returned to predeprivation levels of consumption on both measures. These data suggest that food deprivation produces a sex-dependent shift in taste reactivity. (shrink)

Temporal, practice, and pharmacological factors influencing behavioral function were examined in male albino rats after middle cortical lesions. Cortical lesioned, sham-operated, and unoperated control groups were given eight daily training sessions in a single-arm maze after postsurgery recovery periods of 10, 20, or 30 days. On Days 9 and 10, the animals received pretest ethanol and saline injections in a counterbalanced design. The middle cortical groups showed maximal impairment (increases in errors and latencies) after the 10-day recovery period, partial (...) improvement after the 20-day postsurgery period, and control-level performance after the 30-day postsurgery period. Ethanol injections increased errors but not latencies of the lesioned animals, which had begun training 10 days after surgery. The results suggest that the lesioned animals displayed a time-dependent recovery in which practice effects played only a minor role. Further, the results suggest that the cortically lesioned animals just at the point of recovery are hypersensitive to the debilitating effects of ethanol. (shrink)

Four rats at 80% of their free-feeding body weights received six daily 1-h sessions of schedule-induced polydipsia training with 9.5% (v/v) ethanol solution on a fixed-time 2-min food schedule for a total of 20 days. Then choice testing with ethanol vs. water was conducted for 10 days during the polydipsia sessions. Next, the four rats were returned to home cages, where choice testing continued for 7 days under ad-lib feeding conditions and then 10 days under reinstated food-deprivation conditions. (...) While ethanol consumption was high during both polydipsia and home cage choice testing at 80% body weight, it decreased to nearly zero when the rats were given ad-lib access to food in the home cage choice testing condition. These data support a “caloric hypothesis” interpretation of ethanol ingestion in rats. (shrink)

This article presents a study of the techno-economical feasibility of manufacturing biofuel ethanol at small scale from agricultural sources in New Zealand. It investigates possible agricultural products and wastes as potential feedstock and looks at laboratory-scale fermentation trials to determine their ethanol yields. The ethanol requirement to replace all gasoline in New Zealand with a 10 vol% blend (E10) is 300 ML/yr. Current production is derived from whey with output being about one sixth of this requirement. Sugarcane, (...) sugar beets, maize, potato waste, and spoilt kiwifruit possess potential for use as feedstock. New Zealand currently grows approximately 150,000 t/yr maize, sufficient for making 45 ML/yr ethanol, and also has the potential to exploit 100,000 t/yr potato processing waste and 18,000 t/yr spoilt kiwifruit. Sugarcane and sugar beets are currently not grown on a large scale in New Zealand. However, sugarcane is of particular interest because of its high ethanol yield (7,750 L/ha) and ease of processing. (shrink)

The history of the fetal alcohol syndrome provides a microcosm in which to explore the larger ramifications of historical citations in biomedical publications. Though some historical references such as Biblical writings may hint at a rudimentary understanding of the relationship between maternal drinking and fetal development, no definitive case can be made for an understanding of FAS dating back hundreds of years. Authors who claim an impressive history for FAS misrepresent that history. The modern history of FAS raises a question (...) concerning citations of original discoveries. The first paper describing ethanol-induced damage to the fetus appeared in 1968 yet most researchers cite one of two papers from 1973. Both ancient citations and modern references to original discoveries pose difficult questions for the scientist. Both dilemmas may be solved by a better reading of the literature and a more judicious wording when writing about history. (shrink)

This study examines the hydrolysis of lignocellulose extracted from poultry manure for the purpose of investigating low-cost feedstocks for ethanol production while providing an alternative solid waste management strategy for agricultural livestock manures. Poultry manure underwent various pretreatments to enhance subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis including untreated, alkaline pretreatment with 0.5N KOH, drying, and grinding. The KOH-treated, dried, and grinded poultry manure yielded the highest glucose conversions. When poultry manure without pretreatment was hydrolyzed at 40°C with an enzyme loading 400 units/g (...) feedstock, 7.1 ± 0.3% was converted to glucose in 24 hours. This increased to 27.6 ± 1.2% when a KOH pretreatment followed by drying and grinding was applied. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analyses were used to examine differences in the composition of the pretreated feedstock before and after enzymatic hydrolysis. These indicate that the cellulose content in pretreated poultry manure was removed during enzymatic hydrolysis. (shrink)

A noticeable push toward using agricultural crops for ethanol production and for undertaking research to expand the range of possible biofuels began to dominate discussions of agricultural science and policy in the United States around 2005. This paper proposes two complementary philosophical approaches to examining the philosophical questions that should be posed in connection with this turn of events. One stresses a critique of underlying epistemological commitments in the scientific models being developed to determine the feasibility of various biofuels (...) proposals. The second begins with a broader set of questions about the philosophical goals of agriculture, then queries the place that a turn to biofuels might have within the philosophy of agriculture. Both are portrayed as viable and important. The paper itself is a preliminary stage-setting reflection on the need for these two types of philosophical inquiry. (shrink)

The teratogenic effect of ethanol on human and animal embryos is now well documented. Recent studies have clearly demonstrated that ethanol and related spindle‐acting agents may additionally interfere with normal meiotic chromosome segregation during oocyte maturation, leading to the production of aneuploid embryos. The mode of action, and potential hazard posed by these agents is considered.

Germline mutations can affect future generations, while somatic mutations cannot. This germline‐soma distinction does not seem to make sense for unicellular organisms. We challenge this view, arguing that baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) has a germline. Under aerobic conditions yeast cells use mainly fermentation of glucose to produce ethanol. Only when glucose is exhausted, cells switch to full respiration of the produced ethanol. We hypothesize that only a subset of the cells continue dividing and switch to respiration. A change (...) from exponential to linear growth is consistent with asymmetrical cell division, where a senescing mother cell produces quiescent daughter cells. We thus propose that most cells produced during fermentation are “somatic,” that is, they rapidly lose reproductive capacity, while the cells continuing to divide constitute the germline, as they exclusively produce rejuvenated quiescent cells. We discuss biased DNA‐template strand inheritance by the mother cell as a potential adaptive explanation for germline sequestration to reduce the mutation rate. (shrink)

From seed to table, the food chain is gendered. When seeds and food are in women’s hands, seeds reproduce and multiply freely, food is shared freely and respected. However, women’s seed and food economy has been discounted as “productive work.” Women’s seed and food knowledge has been discounted as knowledge. Globalization has led to the transfer of seed and food from women’s hands to corporate hands. Seed is now patented and genetically engineered. It is treated as the creation and “property” (...) of corporations like Monsanto. Renewable seed becomes nonrenewable. Sharing and saving seed becomes a crime. Diversity, nourished by centuries of women’s breeding, disappears, and with it the culture and natural evolution that is embodied in the diversity is lost forever. Food, too, is transformed in corporate hands. It is no longer our nourishment; it becomes a commodity. And as a commodity it can be manipulated and monopolized. If food grain makes more money as cattle feed than it does as food for human consumption, it becomes cattle feed. If food grain converted to biofuel to run automobiles is more profitable, it becomes ethanol and biodiesel. (shrink)

In the first decade of the twenty-first century, biofuels were recognized as an important element in the overall strategy to reduce climate-forcing greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide. Yet scientific research to more fully realize the potential of agricultural crops for liquid transportation fuel requires the coordination of many separate projects housed in different disciplines. Studies predicting and documenting adverse social impacts of plant-based ethanol and biodiesel led to the inclusion of social science components within research teams seeking to develop (...) biofuels. A 2008 rise in global food prices became a centerpiece of this research, leading to a search for non-food crops that could serve as energy feedstocks. Although coordinated scientific research teams have made significant strides toward incorporating social dimensions and broader impacts into what was originally a purely biophysical research effort, a simplistic diagnosis of the tension between agricultural production for food use and agricultural production intended for energy production continues to prevail. Some of the hard questions in the global development of the agricultural sector have been obscured as a result. (shrink)

An environmental, climate mitigation rationale for research and development on liquid transportation fuels derived from plants emerged among many scientists and engineers during the last decade. However, between 2006 and 2010, this climate ethic for pursuing biofuel became politically entangled and conceptually confused with rationales for encouraging greater use of plant-based ethanol that were both unconnected to climate ethics and potentially in conflict with the value-commitments providing a mitigation-oriented reason to promote and develop new and expanded sources of biofuel. (...) I argue that the conceptual construct of technological trajectories provides a fecund approach to the ethical evaluation of R&D strategies in the case of plant-based liquid transportation fuels. The idea of a trajectory has a current use in the literature of science studies and aptly summarizes a number of themes that are critical to the evaluation of tools and techniques whose future shape, design, applications and potential consequences are necessarily somewhat speculative. In the case of biofuels, it is the imagined future trajectory that provides the basis for resistance to an emerging technology, rather than the present-day technical capabilities and the unexpected consequences of biofuel development. (shrink)