In answering normative questions, researchers sometimes appeal to the concept of basic needs. Their guiding idea is that our first priority should be to ensure that everybody is able to meet these needs—to have enough in terms of food, water, shelter, and so on. This article provides an opinionated overview of basic needs in normative contexts. Any basic needs theory must answer three questions: (1) What are basic needs? (2) To what (...) extent do basic needs generate reasons for action and how are these reasons to be understood? (3) How are basic needs and their satisfaction to be measured? I address these questions in turn. Then I also briefly discuss the theoretical potential of appealing to basic needs in normative contexts. It turns out that future research in this area could benefit from a higher degree of interdisciplinarity and methodological reflection, and that, generally speaking, basic needs theories are more promising than they have often been claimed to be. (shrink)

Basic-needs sufficientarianism holds that everyone should have enough in the sense of having their basic needs satisfied. Though a common form of sufficientarianism, basic-needs sufficientarianism is underexplored even by its proponents. This article significantly advances understanding of basic-needs sufficientarianism in three respects. First, it identifies basic-needs sufficientarians’ stances on key issues such as whether basic needs are of fundamental or instrumental value, the grounding of that value, the weighting (...) assigned to basic needs, and the treatment of subthreshold distribution. Second, it argues that the common commitment of these theories to the fundamental value of basic needs is unsustainable whether it is grounded in the universality of basic needs or their connection with autonomy. Third, it proposes an instrumental form of basic-needs sufficientarianism that is truer to the core motivation of ensuring everyone has sufficient food, water, clothing, shelter, sanitation and healthcare while offering an appealing and theoretically-grounded approach to the contested question of sufficientarian subthreshold distribution. (shrink)

This paper addresses a theory of intergenerational justice that we refer to as “needs-based sufficientarianism”. According to needs-based sufficientarianism, the present generation ought to enable future generations to meet their basic needs — for example, their needs for drinkable water, food and health care. Our aim is to explain and defend this theory in a programmatic way. First, we introduce what we regard as the most plausible variant of needs-based sufficientarianism. Then we argue that (...) this variant is superior to several alternative ways of thinking about intergenerational justice. In particular, we defend basic needs as the currency of intergenerational justice and sufficiency as its principle. Our arguments for these claims are neither fully comprehensive nor fully conclusive. Yet, we hope that they suffice to show that needs-based sufficientarianism is a major contender, with significant pro tanto advantages over other views. (shrink)

Need-claims are ubiquitous within moral and political theory. However, need-based theories are often criticized for being too narrow in scope and too focused on the material preconditions for leading a decent life for grounding a substantial theory of social justice. The aim of this paper is threefold. Firstly, it will investigate the nature and scope of needs by analysing existing conceptualizations of the idea of needs. In so doing, we will get a better understanding of needs, which (...) will help us to carve out the importance and singularity of basic need claims. Secondly, on the basis of the analysis of needs, it will argue for the concept of a fundamental interest in free social agency, which is much better suited than the idea of basic needs actually to ground a theory of social justice, as it highlights the social and institutional conditions for free agency. Thirdly, using the distinction between basic needs and fundamental interests, it will clarify their respective role in and importance for grounding moral principles. Overall, the paper offers a friendly critique of need-based theories, while arguing for a shift of focus to the idea of fundamental interests. (shrink)

Basic needs fulfilment is fundamental to becoming human and reaching one’s potential. Extending the BUCET list proposed by Susan Fiske - which includes belonging, understanding, control/competence, autonomy, self-enhancement, trust, purpose and life satisfaction - this book demonstrates that the fulfilment of basic needs predicts adult physical and mental health, as well as sociality and morality. The authors suggest that meeting basic needs in childhood vitally shapes one’s trajectory for self-actualization, and that initiatives aimed at (...) human wellbeing should include a greater emphasis on early childhood experience. Through contemporaneous and retrospective research in childhood, the authors argue that basic need-fulfilment is key to the development of the self and the possibility of reaching one’s full potential. This book will be of interest to scholars of human wellbeing and societal flourishing, as well as to health workers and educators. (shrink)

According to the so-called Classical Theory, concepts are mentally represented by individually necessary and jointly sufficient application conditions. One of the principal empirical objections against this view stems from evidence that people judge some instances of a concept to be more typical than others. In this paper we present and discuss four empirical studies that investigate the extent to which this ‘typicality effect’ holds for the concept of basic needs. Through multiple operationalizations of typicality, our studies yielded evidence (...) for a strong effect of this kind: (1) Participants tended to recall the same core examples of the concept in a free-listing task. (2) They judged some basic needs to be more typical than others. (3) The items that were judged to be more typical were listed more frequently in the free-listing task. (4) These items were listed earlier on in the free-listing task. (5) Typical basic needs, as well as non needs, were classified faster than atypical basic needs in a reaction time study. These findings suggest that the concept of basic needs may have a non-classical (e.g., exemplar or prototype) structure. If so, the quest for a simple and robust intensional analysis of the concept may be futile. (shrink)

Prior research proposed five basic needs: belonging, understanding, control, enhancing self, and trust (BUCET). Individually, each has been associated with physical and mental health. To date, basic psychosocial needs have been measured individually. These studies aim to validate a new, short and comprehensive measure of basic psychosocial needs, the Basic Needs Satisfaction Survey (BNSS), and demonstrate its association with physical and mental health. Study 1 confirmed previous EFA results for the BNSS and (...) tested both convergent and predictive validity. Study 2 used CFA and examined divergent validity. Regression models investigated the role of the BNSS subscales as predictors of physical and mental health. Analyses from two studies demonstrated construct validity and predictive ability, providing evidence that the BNSS is reliable and valid and significantly related to both physical and mental health independent of socioeconomic status. Useful for predicting health outcomes, BNSS may be useful as a screener in medical settings. (shrink)

Humanity’s evolutionary inheritances include many things beyond genes, such as self-organization and a developmental system for raising the young (evolved developmental niche or evolved nest). We present an evolutionary understanding of human species-typical and atypical development and need provision, as well as adult outcomes in species-typical contexts. Maslow noted that thwarting of basic needs fulfillment in early life has effects over the long term but he did not describe what a positive experience in early life looks like. We (...) provide an evolutionary picture here. We describe the development of a retrospective basic needs fulfillment measure based on the Basic Needs Satisfaction Survey whose validation was described in Chapter 10.1007/978-3-319-97734-8_2. We tested the usefulness of basic needs history against an existing measure of evolved developmental niche history which were highly correlated in two studies. Hierarchical regression indicated that the measure Basic Needs History explained more of the variance than Evolved Developmental Niche History. (shrink)

Interdisciplinary research is demonstrating the importance of physiological and neurobiological development for adult functioning. Recently, the theoretical linkages between early experience and adult morality have been drawn. We examine the relation of early experience to basic needs fulfillment and their relation to adult moral functioning. Using the Basic Needs Satisfaction Scale (BNSS), a short, comprehensive scale with two subscales: Life Effectance and Life Discouragement. In two studies, we demonstrate evidence of basic needs satisfaction mediating (...) the relationship between childhood experience and morality. We also examine which retrospective factors in childhood are most predictive of moral outcomes in adulthood. These results suggest that comprehensive satisfaction of basic needs may help explain the mechanism behind key relationships between childhood experiences and outcomes in adulthood that have been previously established by others. (shrink)

Maslow spends a great deal of thinking and writing about human fulfillment, including reaching one’s potential. After studying exemplars in literature and biography, as well as personal acquaintances, he described the nature of “self-actualization.” The assumption of basic needs fulfillment is that one can then focus on self-actualization. We review his description and contrast the descriptions with our ancestral context, small-band hunter-gatherer societies. Then we examine the human capabilities approach which also emphasizes adult needs. We suggest that (...) meeting the needs of babies is fundamental to potentialities for self-actualization and human capabilities. Meeting the needs of babies means following the evolved nest for the young. To make this clear, we present a baby bill of rights. (shrink)

Workplace bullying is a phenomenon that can have serious detrimental effects on health, work-related attitudes, and the behavior of the target. Particularly, workplace bullying exposure has been linked to lower level of general well-being, job satisfaction, vigor, and performance and higher level of burnout, workplace deviance, and turnover intentions. However, the psychological mechanisms behind these relations are still not well-understood. Drawing on psychological contract and self-determination theory (SDT), we hypothesized that perceptions of contract violation and the frustration of basic (...) needs mediate the relationship between workplace bullying exposure and well-being, attitudinal, and behavioral outcomes. Self-reported data were collected among employees with different working backgrounds (N= 1,257)viaAmazon's Mechanical Turk in an online survey. Results showed that feelings of contract violation and frustration of basic needs accounted for unique variation in well-being, work satisfaction, burnout, vigor, and turnover intentions, pointing to individual contributions of both psychological mechanisms. However, when controlled for frustration of basic needs, feelings of psychological contract violation were no longer a mediator between workplace bullying exposure and work performance. Helping employees to deal effectively with workplace bullying exposure might buffer its negative effects and reduce their experienced frustration of basic needs, preserving their well-being, vigor, and work performance and, eventually, prevent burnout. The present study is the first to concurrently elucidate the proposed psychological mechanisms and unique contributions of psychological contract violation and frustration of basic needs in the context of workplace bullying. (shrink)

Needs satisfaction has an important bearing on moral agency. This chapter follows Maslow’s distinction between physical needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs and self-actualization needs. Although need deprivation does not automatically cause destructive behaviour, it creates pressures and evoke negative emotions such as frustration and desperation that might lead into destructive behaviour. For example, physiological wants could become so all-consuming that it blocks out the moral judgement of an individual, while in (...) the case of psychological needs, harmful compensatory or substitutionary fulfilments could be used to compensate for thwarted psychological needs. Chronic safety concerns tend to evoke aggressive emotions, and fight responses, while love deprivation is a proven source of psychopathology. Low self-esteem causes inner conflict and fragility and might elicit anti-social behaviour, while self-actualization frustration could incite disenchantment. This chapter argues that need pressures are one of the major sources of South Africa’s moral crisis. (shrink)

This paper situates the concept of resilience in the context of intergenerational climate justice. It argues that overlooking intergenerational justice questions when it comes to resilience can lead to blind-spots in resilience-building policies. Introducing a sufficientarian basic needs-based conception of justice, it explores the relationship between distributive justice and resilience, linking person-based justice accounts to community- and/or society-based resilience accounts. Based on these discussions, it develops a conception of intergenerational climate resilience and a policy matrix that can assist (...) in assessing policies in terms of intergenerational justice. It argues that taking intergenerational resilience seriously would widen the concept of resilience and lead to difficult trade-offs in terms of mitigation and adaptation. It further discusses a future research agenda into intergenerational climate resilience. (shrink)

Crowdfunding has created new opportunities for poor microentrepreneurs. One crucial question is the impact that the purpose of a loan—either business investment or basic necessities—may have on the success of a campaign. Investigating a prosocial crowdfunding platform, we find that loans taken out to meet basic needs are funded faster than business-related loans, especially for small amounts, which can be explained by the prosocial motivation of microlenders. Moreover, female microborrowers are funded faster than men, especially for (...) class='Hi'>basic needs loans. Our results therefore suggest an ethical blind spot, since prosocially motivated crowdlenders may unintentionally end up producing adverse effects, replicating gender role by supporting women to a lesser extent when they apply for business loans. This finding expands prosocial motivational theory in ethical finance. (shrink)

According to the basic needs principle, a state in favorable circumstances must enable its members to meet their basic needs throughout a normal life-span. Applied to the international situation, I argue, this principle implies that a global state would have a duty to enable subordinate states to meet their members‘ needs. In the absence of a global state, existing states have a duty to work to create a system of institutions that would enable each state (...) to meet its members‘ needs. Near the conclusion, I respond to skeptical objections about global justice. (shrink)

A review essay of Gillian Brock Global Justice: A Cosmopolitan Account (Oxford University Press, 2009).

Here Julie Landsman chronicles one year as a teacher in a program for students in such serious trouble they are asked to leave their middle schools and attend a special program for disruptive students. She allows her readers to get to know the students, their home and street situations, and how their stories develop over the year, and in doing so, shows the complexity of young people, their beauty, and their individuality.

We describe Maslow’s hierarchy of basic needs and the importance of basic needs satisfaction and how lack of provision leads to stress. When basic needs are not provided, it creates a situation of stress, leading to poorer health outcomes. We discuss the outline of the book where we discuss two new comprehensive measures of basic needs. In Chapter 10.1007/978-3-319-97734-8_2, we describe the creation and validation of a comprehensive measure of basic (...) class='Hi'>needs. In Chapter 10.1007/978-3-319-97734-8_3, we examine the evolutionary inheritances of basic needs as they pertain to the evolved nest, discuss and test a retrospective measure of basic needs in childhood and contrast it with the evolved developmental niche (EDN) history measure. In Chapter 10.1007/978-3-319-97734-8_4, we examine the relation of basic needs to moral functioning. In Chapter 10.1007/978-3-319-97734-8_5, we examine other models of basic needs and draw some conclusions. (shrink)

According to HealthCare.gov, by improving access to quality health for all Americans, the Affordable Care Act (ACA) will reduce disparities in health insurance coverage. One way this will happen under the provisions of the ACA is by creating a new health insurance marketplace (a health insurance exchange) by 2014 in which “all people will have a choice for quality, affordable health insurance even if a job loss, job switch, move or illness occurs”. This does not mean that everyone will have (...) whatever insurance coverage he or she wants. The provisions of the ACA require that each of the four benefit categories of plans (known as bronze, silver, gold and platinum) provides no less than the benefits available in an “essential health benefits package”. However, without a clear understanding of what criteria must be satisfied for health care to be essential, the ACA’s requirement is much too vague and open to multiple, potentially conflicting interpretations. Indeed, without such understanding, in the rush to provide health insurance coverage to as many people as is economically feasible, we may replace one kind of disparity (lack of health insurance) with another kind of disparity (lack of adequate health insurance). Thus, this paper explores the concept of “essential benefits”, arguing that the “essential health benefits package” in the ACA should be one that optimally satisfies the basic needs of the people covered. (shrink)

In this study, the self-reported mystical experience of Muslims was correlated with constructs relevant to positive psychology. Iranian university students responded to the Extrovertive, Introvertive, and Religious Interpretation factors of the Mysticism Scale; to the Basic Need Satisfaction and Mindfulness measures associated with Self-Determination Theory; and to instruments recording Attributional Complexity, Obsessiveness, and Quest religiosity. Religious Interpretation and Extrovertive factors correlated positively whereas the Introvertive factor correlated negatively with the Self-Determination and adaptive functioning that are emphases of positive psychology. (...) Research that analyzes mystical experience within the context of positive psychology may, therefore, be useful in clarifying the psychology of religious experience across traditions. (shrink)

Initiating and maintaining sports and exercise behaviour are usually discussed in terms of strategies for promoting health. In the present study, we analysed a sample of extreme endurance sport athletes and set out to predict exercise addiction, which is a facet of a sport-related health risk. We therefore draw on self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000), according to which low basic psychological need satisfaction can lead to excessive compensatory behaviour. We aim to disentangle the effects of need satisfaction (...) in the activity itself (exercising) and outside the activity (work/leisure) on exercise addiction. Furthermore, we propose anxious self-motivation as a mediator and tested whether it links low basic need satisfaction with exercise dependence. A correlational study with 323 multi-triathlon athletes confirmed our hypothesis that need satisfaction in work/leisure (but not in sports) is negatively related to exercise addiction. Furthermore, only need for competence in both domains (sport, work/leisure) is associated with anxious self-motivation. Mediation models showed that low competence satisfaction leads to anxious self-motivation that in turn predicts exercise addiction. The results are discussed critically in terms of their practical and theoretical implications for promoting health through sport and exercise. (shrink)

Some normative theorists appeal to the concept of basic needs. They argue that when it comes to issues such as global justice, intergenerational justice, human rights or sustainable development our first priority should be that everybody is able to meet these needs. But what are basic needs? We attempt to inform discussions about this question by gathering evidence of ordinary English speakers’ intuitions on the concept of basic needs. First, we defend our empirical (...) approach to analyzing this concept and identify a number of its potential features. Then we present three preregistered empirical studies that were conducted to investigate the extent to which ordinary speakers endorse these features. The studies yield convergent evidence for the following three claims: (1) ordinary speakers sometimes apply the concept of basic needs to necessities for a flourishing (not just a minimally decent) life, (2) most ordinary speakers attribute at least some degree of subjectivity to the concept, and (3) most ordinary speakers attribute at least some degree of relativity to the concept. We discuss the implications of these findings for philosophical analyses of _basic needs_. (shrink)

This article applies the findings of a transdisciplinary research project conducted in 2018–2019 involving food aid beneficiaries, practitioners and academics to evaluate the current food assistance system as operationalized in several high-income countries. Using a well-being framework developed by a participatory study led by the World Bank in 2000, it analyzes the capacity of the current food assistance system – and alternative pathways – to fulfill material, bodily and social well-being, as well as security, freedom of choice and action and (...) interpersonal justice. The results of the transdisciplinary research project show that the dominant pathway currently in place for achieving food security among individuals and households experiencing poverty insufficiently fulfils criteria related to bodily and social well-being and largely fails to provide beneficiaries with freedom of choice and action as well as interpersonal justice. Through ex-ante and ex-post interviews conducted with the participants of the transdisciplinary research project, the article proposes an exploratory analysis of the social learning and empowerment generated through the process. It finds that food aid beneficiaries, practitioners and university researchers modified their empirical policy beliefs, albeit to varying degrees. In terms of empowerment, results suggest participants’ collective empowerment was strengthened, while individual empowerment waned. (shrink)

Norman Daniels, in applying Rawls’ theory of justice to the issue of human health, ideally presupposes that society exists in a state of moderate scarcity. However, faced with problems like climate change, many societies find that their state of moderate scarcity is increasingly under threat. The first part of this essay aims to determine the consequences for Daniels’ theory of just health when we incorporate into Rawls’ understanding of justice the idea that the condition of moderate scarcity can fail. Most (...) significantly, I argue for a generation-neutral principle of basic needs that is lexically prior to Rawls’ familiar principles of justice. The second part of this paper aims to demonstrate how my reformulated version of Daniels’ conception of just health can help to justify action on climate change and guide climate policy within liberal-egalitarian societies. (shrink)

The transition from university to working life appears a critical period impacting human service workers’ long-term health. More research is needed on how psychological factors affect the risk. We aimed to investigate how subgroups, based on self-efficacy, psychological flexibility, and basic psychological needs satisfaction ratings, differed on self-rated health, wellbeing, and intention to leave. A postal survey was sent to 1,077 recently graduated psychologists in Sweden, response rate 57.5%, and final sample 532. A hierarchical cluster analysis resulted in (...) a satisfactory eight-cluster solution. We identified two at-risk subgroups, displaying the lowest scores on health and wellbeing, and one potential low-risk subgroup with the highest ratings on said variables. The “Low risk?” group rated high on all three psychological constructs, a positive transition to working life, a work environment where resources balanced relatively high emotional demands, good health, and wellbeing. Almost the complete opposite ratings characterized the potential risk groups. “Quitting?” scored significantly higher than “Getting sick?” on self-efficacy and psychological flexibility as well as actively seeking new employment and reporting daily thoughts on leaving the profession. We suggest that a combination of low self-efficacy and psychological flexibility could increase the risk of individuals staying despite suboptimal working conditions. With combined higher self-efficacy and psychological flexibility, individuals in similar circumstances appear more inclined to quit. We conclude that the ways recently graduated psychologists rate their self-efficacy, psychological flexibility, and basic needs satisfaction appear to be reflected in their self-rated health and wellbeing. (shrink)

Chapter 3 introduces “foundational titles”. Foundational titles provide the geographical anchor from which territorial rights are built. The grounding rights of foundational titles will often be use-rights—liberties to access and to use things in the commons—and special claim rights to things while they are being used. Many agents can hold use-rights and other claims over the same resources, like fresh water in a river system, thus providing a consistent groundwork for justifying overlapping territorial rights. This chapter also defends a Pufendorfian (...) version of the basic needs proviso by discussing Robert Nozick’s water hole case. The proviso is triggered when persons cannot access the objects of their basic needs while at the same time respecting existing claims to those objects. (shrink)

Psychological safety is important for the well-being and productivity of people in the workplace. Psychological safety becomes even more important and even more difficult to maintain in times of uncertainty. Previous research mainly focused on the influence of and on interpersonal relationships. This study applies an individual perspective by investigating what is needed on an individual level in order to build psychological safety. The expectation was that self-compassion induces an individual to experience higher positive affect, and this advances the development (...) of positive relations and social acceptance. Moreover, we assumed that the mediation of the relationship between self-compassion and positive relations and social acceptance by positive affect is moderated by the level of basic need satisfaction. Participants from the Netherlands and Belgium completed an online questionnaire about their level of self-compassion, basic need satisfaction, positive affect and positive relations and social acceptance. Using hierarchical regression analyses for moderated mediation analysis, results showed that self-compassion and positive affect had a significant positive effect on positive relations and social acceptance. Positive affect significantly mediated the relationship between self-compassion and positive relations and social acceptance, when basic need satisfaction was low, but not when basic need satisfaction was high. Our research showed that individuals need either their basic needs satisfied or self-compassion so they can build the high-quality relations needed to stimulate psychological safety. This finding shifts attention from the dyadic relationship to the individual and highlights important factors at the individual level which advance the development of high-quality relationships with others. (shrink)

This is an examination of the significance of Gandhi's social philosophy for development. It is argued that, when seen in light of Gandhi's social philosophy, the concepts of appropriate technology and basic needs take on new meaning. The Gandhian approach can be identified with theoriginal "basic needs" strategy for international development. Gandhi's approach helps to provide greater equity, or "distributive justice," by promoting technology that is appropriate to "basic needs". Gandhi's social philosophy has been (...) neglected by most development specialists, with only a few exceptions. This analysis attempts to draw out some aspects of M.K. Gandhi's background and his thinking aboutswadeshi andswaraj. Gandhi's ideas, which emerged out of an "Indic" meta-cultural background, are based on an emphasis on equity. Gandhi's syncretic Indic background includes a belief in what Bateson, writing about Bali, Indonesia, has called the "steady state." Development activities should be carried out in a phased manner that does not disturb the beneficial aspects of dynamic equilibrium, but that does promote "positive development." A.T. is particularly useful within the context of a basic needs approach to international development because use of A.T. is probably more likely to lead to equitable growth. The "economic growth" strategy, utilizing "advanced technology" exclusively, has caused unemployment and has not led to effective "trickle down," much less "high mass consumption." In many developing countries the poorest 20% of the population are worse off in 1990 than they were in 1980. By making use of the "advantage of backwardness" and viewing development in terms of long-term impacts, a basic needs approach using A.T. is more likely to lead to a positive impact on third world food systems than a pure "economic growth" strategy. (shrink)

Teaching is a highly demanding profession that requires handling multiple and potentially contradictory goals. Therefore, it is likely that teachers experience conflict between work-related goals on a daily basis. Intraindividual goal conflict may occur when individuals pursue multiple goals drawing on the same limited resources, or when two or more goals are incompatible in terms of goal attainment strategy or desired end states. Because goal conflict is typically associated with negative effects such as attenuated motivation and wellbeing, teacher goal conflict (...) may jeopardize teaching motivation. This cross-sectional study investigated the effects of in-service teachers’ goal conflicts on their autonomous and controlled teaching motivation and tested the satisfaction of teachers’ basic need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness as mediators. In line with our hypotheses, results from structural equation modeling showed that frequently experiencing resource-based goal conflict leads to a lower satisfaction of the basic need for autonomy, which, however, was unrelated to teaching motivation. In contrast, frequently experiencing inherent goal conflict attenuates the satisfaction of the basic need for competence, which, in turn, positively predicted autonomous teaching motivation and negatively predicted extrinsic regulation. As expected, relatedness was not associated with the experience of goal conflict. The discussion focuses on differential effects of the two types of goal conflict on teaching motivation and on the relevance to expand research on teachers’ intraindividual goal conflicts. (shrink)

(1982). The new international economic order, basic needs, and technology transfer: Toward an integrated strategy for development in the future. World Futures: Vol. 18, No. 3-4, pp. 163-176.

ObjectivesFrom a self-determination theory perspective, the purpose of this cross sectional study was to better understand how to motivate hospitalized older adults’ behaviors and test an integrative model of the role of causality orientations and a supportive/controlled environment on basic need satisfaction, motivation for health oriented physical activity, positive and negative affective states, depressive symptoms, apathy, and boredom.MethodsOlder adults in French hospital units completed self-report questionnaires and socio-demographic data were also collected.ResultsPartial least squares path modeling results showed that participants’ (...) autonomy orientation positively associated with the perception of a supportive environment was related to need satisfaction, autonomous motivation for health-oriented physical activity, and high scores on positive affective states. Conversely, participants’ impersonal orientation positively associated with the perception of a controlled environment was related to undermining need satisfaction, controlled motivation for health-oriented physical activity, and amotivation, and high scores on both negative affective states, and boredom.ConclusionThe present results indicate that taking into account personality factors in hospital units can be useful and health professionals should take an interest both in the patients’ causality orientations and the supportive nature of the environment in order to understand better how to motivate patients’ behaviors. The present study points to the need to focus on all motivational dynamics which allow patients’ need satisfaction. (shrink)

Chapter 2 introduces and defends the normative framework used to ground arguments throughout the book. Nine’s theory grows from modern natural law, especially borrowed from Samuel Pufendorf. Chapter 2 defends the adoption of Pufendorf’s claim that the fundamental principle of natural law is to be sociable, to live in peaceful coexistence with others under conditions that respect the natural equality of persons. This chapter elaborates upon how this fundamental principle of natural law relates to specific rules of natural law. It (...) applies a rule-utilitarian method and derives the natural right to secure access to the objects of our basic needs from the principle of sociability. (shrink)

Needs satisfaction has an important bearing on moral agency. This chapter follows Maslow’s distinction between physical needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs and self-actualization needs. Although need deprivation does not automatically cause destructive behaviour, it creates pressures and evoke negative emotions such as frustration and desperation that might lead into destructive behaviour. For example, physiological wants could become so all-consuming that it blocks out the moral judgement of an individual, while in (...) the case of psychological needs, harmful compensatory or substitutionary fulfilments could be used to compensate for thwarted psychological needs. Chronic safety concerns tend to evoke aggressive emotions, and fight responses, while love deprivation is a proven source of psychopathology. Low self-esteem causes inner conflict and fragility and might elicit anti-social behaviour, while self-actualization frustration could incite disenchantment. This chapter argues that need pressures are one of the major sources of South Africa’s moral crisis. (shrink)

This chapter provides an account of what justifies our most basic presumptions of co-reference and identity judgements. The account is reached by extension from Anscombe’s notion of practical knowledge. Anscombian materials generate a notion of ‘justification’ for behaviour: a behaviour is justified iff it is guided by an intention of whose fulfilment it is a non-lucky generator. The chapter proposes that the justification for our most basic presumptions of co-reference and identity is also a kind of justification for (...) behaviour, though in this case the guidance comes not from a conceptual motivational state (an intention) but from a non-conceptual one (a need): the mind has a basic need to represent things outside itself; the information marshalling involved in our most basic presumptions of co-reference and identity is justified because it is guided by this need, and is a reliable generator of the need’s fulfilment. (shrink)

Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights reads as follows: “Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services.” I shall refer to the right postulated here as “the right to an adequate standard of living” or “The Right.”.

This chapter draws on Charles Beitz’s account of natural resource justice to defend a method of justification that can be used to develop the Common Ownership view. This method employs an original position device, familiar from contemporary social contract theory, and the resulting view is therefore termed ‘Contractualist Common Ownership’. This understanding of Common Ownership is motivated by arguing that it is an apt interpretation of Equal Original Claims. Two key objections to this approach are anticipated and addressed. Contractualist Common (...) Ownership is then used to reconsider and reject the principle of equal division. It is argued that instead, the parties would first secure agreement on a basic needs principle. However, it is also argued that this sufficientarian principle would not be accepted in isolation; parties would seek agreement on further principles of justice for the assignment of rights to natural resources, beyond what is required for basic needs. (shrink)