Time perception is the name of the topic of research that deals with the perception of temporal properties. Listening to a piece of music, for instance, the experience one has turns centrally on whether two notes sound at the same time or in succession, the order in which different notes are played, and the duration of each note as well as of the gaps between them—these are just some elementary temporal properties. A large body of work (...) has studied the mechanisms underpinning the perception of temporal properties, including their limitations, the errors they are subject to, and the factors causing such errors. However, researchers have also raised more fundamental explanatory questions—sometimes associated with the slogan that “there is no sense organ for time”—as to how it is possible for temporal properties to figure in experience at all. The particular theories of time perception that have been developed bear on broader issues such as the unity of consciousness, the boundary between perception and cognition, and the very nature of conscious experience. (shrink)

The Whorfian hypothesis has received support from recent findings in psychology, linguistics, and anthropology. This evidence has been interpreted as supporting the view that language modulates all stages of perception and cognition, in accordance with Whorf’s original proposal. In light of a much broader body of evidence on time perception, I propose to evaluate these findings with respect to their scope. When assessed collectively, the entire body of evidence on time perception shows that the Whorfian (...) hypothesis has a limited scope and that it does not affect early stages of time perception. In particular, all the available evidence shows that the scope of language modulation is limited in the case of time perception, and that the most important mechanisms for time perception are cognitive clocks and simultaneity windows, which we use to perceive the temporal properties of events. Language modulation has distorting effects, but only at later stages of processing or with respect to specific categorization tasks. The paper explains what is the role of these effects in the context of all the available evidence on time cognition and perception. (shrink)

The nature of time is rooted in our body. Constellations of impulses arising from the flesh constantly create our interoceptive perception and, in turn, the unfolding of these perceptions defines human awareness of time. This study explored the connection between time perception and interoception and proposes the Interoceptive Buffer saturation (IBs) index. IBs evaluates subjects’ ability to process salient stimuli from the body by measuring subjective distortions of interoceptive time perception, i.e., the estimated (...) duration of tactile interoceptive stimulations. Thirty female healthy subjects were recruited through consecutive sampling and assessed for common variables related to interoceptive alterations: depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory, BDI-II), eating disorders (EDI-3) risk, and anxiety levels (State Trait Anxiety Inventory, STAI). Interoceptive cardiac accuracy (IAc) was assessed as well. Subjects performed verbal time estimation of interoceptive stimuli (IBs) delivered using a specifically designed interoceptive tactile stimulator, as well as verbal time estimation of visual and auditory stimuli. Results showed that IBs index positively correlated with IAc, and negatively with EDI-3 Drive for Thinness (DT) risk subscale. Moreover, IBs index was positively predicted by IAc, and negatively predicted by DT and somatic factors of depression. Our results suggest that underestimations in interoceptive time perception are connected to different psychological conditions characterized by a diminished processing of high salience stimuli from the body. Conversely, overestimations of the duration of interoceptive stimuli appear to be function of subjects’ ability to correctly perceive their own bodily information. Evidence supported IBs index, fostering the concept of interoceptive treatments for clinical purposes. (shrink)

According to a plausible and influential account of perceptual knowledge, the truth-makers of beliefs that constitute perceptual knowledge must feature in the causal explanation of how we acquire those beliefs. However, this account runs into difficulties when it tries to accommodate time perception -- specifically perception of order and duration -- since the features we are apparently tracking in such perception are not causal. The central aim of the paper is to solve this epistemological puzzle. Two (...) strategies are examined. The first strategy locates the causal truth-makers within the psychological mechanism underlying time perception, thus treating facts about time order and duration as mind-dependent. This strategy, however, is problematic. The second strategy modifies the causal account of perceptual knowledge to include a non-causal component in the explanation of belief-acquisition, namely chronometric explanation. Applying this much more satisfactory approach to perceptual knowledge of time, we can preserve the mind-independence of order and duration, but not that of time's flow. (shrink)

Emotion modulates our time perception. So far, the relationship between emotion and time perception has been examined with visible emotional stimuli. The present study investigated whether invisible emotional stimuli affected time perception. Using continuous flash suppression, which is a kind of dynamic interocular masking, supra-threshold emotional pictures were masked or unmasked depending on whether the retinal position of continuous flashes on one eye was consistent with that of the pictures on the other eye. Observers (...) were asked to reproduce the perceived duration of a frame stimulus that was concurrently presented with a masked or unmasked emotional picture. As a result, negative emotional stimuli elongated the perceived duration of the frame stimulus in comparison with positive and neutral emotional stimuli, regardless of the visibility of emotional pictures. These results suggest that negative emotion unconsciously accelerates an internal clock, altering time perception. (shrink)

There is little doubt that we perceive the world as tensed—that is, as consisting of a past, present and future each with a different ontological status—and transient—that is, as involving a passage of time. We also have the ability to execute precisely timed behaviors that appear to depend upon making correct temporal judgments about which changes are truly present and which are not. A common claim made by scientists and philosophers is that our experiences of entities enduring through transient (...) changes are illusory and that our apparently accurately timed behaviors do not reflect dynamical time. We argue that our experiences of objects enduring through transient changes need not be thought of as illusory even if time is not dynamic at the fundamental level of reality. For, the dynamic properties we experience objects as having need not be fundamental properties. They could be weakly emergent from static, temporal properties. Temporal properties, on this view, are similar to ordinary properties like that of being solid, which are correctly experienced as properties of medium-sized material bodies even though they are not instantiated at the fundamental level of reality. (shrink)

The present study focuses on the religious minority arising from the implementation of the Gregorian calendar in Romania. Christian religious community of the Old Style is defined both historically and through psycho-social elements that caused the secession of belivers together with clerics from the Romanian Orthodox Church. Special attention is given to magical-religious beliefs observed with ethnological research tools, including: magical perception of time and especially of the agrarian calendar, faith in miraculous natural signs, survivals of animist religion. (...) The study of this religious community provides information on internal mechanisms for the appearance and development of minority phenomenon. The research is conducted beyond the issue of minority ethnic differentiations that has dominated multiculturalism studies. On the contrary, the existence of this religious minority in the third millennium, that is intra-ethnic developed and defined by ethno-cultural values eminently conservative, may explain a specific paradox of the strong Romanian religiosity which is essentially a rural and traditionalist one. (shrink)

Time perception is a fundamental process for all animals. We are all familiar with discrepancies in how duration is perceived. This paper explores the following questions: How does the brain perceive time, and what are the sources of these discrepancies? We conducted four studies to examine the effects of affect and arousal on subjective time perception. Employing the Scalar Expectancy Theory model, our final study investigated the role of working memory overload. Additionally, we explored the (...) potential influence of information theory features associated with the stimuli across all studies. Using Bayesian data analysis, we demonstrated that the widely recognized effects of valence, arousal, and their interaction induced by visual stimuli might be artifacts. Notably, a significant effect of valence was observed only in one study, associated with working memory overload. We also highlighted the potential roles of luminance and entropy of visual stimuli, but only in direct duration estimations. The sole persistent effect was related to the objective duration of stimulus exposure. All studies utilized affective visual stimuli. Our findings underscore the necessity for further investigation into human time perception on a millisecond to second scale, particularly concerning stimulus- related factors. Additionally, our results emphasize the importance of methodological considerations in studying human time perception. (shrink)

Anxiety is a pathological condition, as well as a condition that is continued in nature according to the event and situation to keep the vitality alive. For this reason, it is challenging to examine the relationship between the perception of time and the anxiety disease experienced within the limits of normality. Anxiety is one of the most studied topics today. It is also thought that the physical symptoms of anxiety affect cognitive processes. Anxiety, which is observed either alone (...) or in combination with many disorders, shows a possible relationship between the perception of time and some findings related to the subject. These findings show us that people with anxiety disorder have a faster perception of time and a shorter perception estimation. Noticeably more significant differences were found in studies withadolescents. This study used the Beck Anxiety Scale, Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory, Retrospective and Prospective Time Perception Paradigm, and a Demographic Information Form to collect data. As the variables thought to affect the results of the study were detected in 44 of the 212 randomly selected participants, these participants were excluded from the evaluation, and this study was continued with the data of 168 participants. When the findings are evaluated in general, there is a significant difference between the anxiety scale scores of the sample group and the gender variable. According to this finding, it can be said that the level of anxiety varies between men and women. By looking at the 10, 20, 30, and 40-second video reactions of the participants showing anxiety symptoms; It has been determined that anxiety impairs the time perception of individuals. (shrink)

In timing perception studies, the timing of one event is usually manipulated relative to another, and participants are asked to judge if the two events were synchronous, or to judge which of the two events occurred first. Responses are analyzed to determine a measure of central tendency, which is taken as an estimate of the timing at which the two events are perceptually synchronous. When these estimates do not coincide with physical synchrony, it is often assumed that the sensory (...) signals are asynchronous, as though the transfer of information concerning one input has been accelerated or decelerated relative to the other. Here we show that, while this is a viable interpretation, it is equally plausible that such effects are driven by shifts in the criteria used to differentiate simultaneous from asynchronous inputs. Our analyses expose important ambiguities concerning the interpretation of simultaneity judgement data, which have hitherto been underappreciated. (shrink)

Robin Le Poidevin (2007) claims that we do form perceptual beliefs regarding order and duration based on our perception of events, but neither order nor duration are by themselves objects of perception. Temporal properties are discernible only when one first perceives their bearers, and temporal relations are discernible only when one first perceives their relata. The epistemic issue remains as to whether or not our perceptual beliefs about order and duration are formed on the causal basis of an (...) event’s objective order and duration. Le Poidevin raises this issue in the form of an epistemological puzzle of time perception, from which he derives the claim that the order and duration of events do not causally contribute to our perceptual beliefs about them. Since his view is motivated by a causal truthmaker principle for grounding knowledge, it also holds that perceptual beliefs about temporal features must be caused by the features themselves in order to count as knowledge. Given these theoretical commitments, there is a puzzle concerning how such perceptual beliefs could constitute knowledge of temporal properties. In response to Le Poidevin, I argue for an account according to which order and duration are objects of perception, causally contribute to our perceptual beliefs about them, and such beliefs are capable of counting as knowledge. I conclude by showing that, on my alternative account, the epistemological puzzle dissolves and his own solution to it fails. (shrink)

James argued that time is a sensation, and the main point of this paper is to deny that claim. The concept of the specious present is explained, indicating how it clarifies the concept of "the present moment." But neither it nor an argument used by Mach and James show time to be a sensation. The analysis presented here requires distinguishing concepts of sensation from concepts of temporal relations. James' view is really a theory that time-as-duration is sensed. (...) But this assumes that the description of time as sensed is also a description of time as an objective property of independent events. This is nowhere established, and making it plausible is a recurrent problem for philosophies like neutral monism and radical empiricism. (shrink)

Previous research has demonstrated that duration of implied motion (IM) was dilated, whereas hMT+ activity related to perceptual processes on IM stimuli could be modulated by their motion coherence. Based on these findings, the present study aimed to examine whether subjective time perception of IM stimuli would be influenced by varying coherence levels. A temporal bisection task was used to measure the subjective experience of time, in which photographic stimuli showing a human moving in four directions (left, (...) right, toward, or away from the viewer) were presented as probe stimuli. The varying coherence of these IM stimuli was manipulated by changing the percentage of pictures implying movement in one direction. Participants were required to judge whether the duration of probe stimulus was more similar to the long or short pre-presented standard duration. As predicted, the point of subjective equality was significantly modulated by the varying coherence of the IM stimuli, but not for no-IM stimuli. This finding suggests that coherence level might be a key mediating factor for perceived duration of IM images, and top-down perceptual stream from inferred motion could influence subjective experience of time perception. (shrink)

Temporal binding is the phenomenon in which events related as cause and effect are perceived by humans to be closer in time than they actually are). Despite the fact that temporal binding experiments with humans have relied on verbal instructions, we argue that they are adaptable to nonhuman animals, and that a finding of temporal binding from such experiments would provide evidence of causal reasoning that cannot be reduced to associative learning. Our argument depends on describing and theoretically motivating (...) an intermediate level of representations between the lower levels of associations of sensory features and higher symbolic representations. This intermediate level of representations makes it possible to challenge arguments given by some comparative psychologists that animals lack higher-level abstract and explicit forms of causal reasoning because their cognitive capacities are limited to learning and reasoning at the basic level of perceptual associations. Our multi-level account connects time perception with causal reasoning and provides a philosophically defensible framework for experimental investigations that have not yet been pursued. We describe the structure of some possible experiments and consider the implications that would follow from a positive finding of temporal binding in nonhuman animals. Such a finding would provide evidence of explicit awareness of causal relationships and would warrant attribution of intermediate representations that are more abstract and sophisticated than the associations allowed by the lower level of the two-level account. (shrink)

The present study examined whether cinematographic editing density affects viewers’ perception of time. As a second aim, based on embodied models that conceive time perception as strictly connected to the movement, we tested the hypothesis that the editing density of moving images also affects viewers’ eye movements and that these later mediate the effect of editing density on viewers’ temporal judgments. Seventy participants watched nine video clips edited by manipulating the number of cuts (slow‐ and fast‐paced (...) editing against a master shot, unedited condition). For each editing density, multiple video clips were created, representing three different kinds of routine actions. The participants’ eye movements were recorded while watching the video, and the participants were asked to report duration judgments and subjective passage of time judgments after watching each clip. The results showed that participants subjectively perceived that time flew more while watching fast‐paced edited videos than slow‐paced or unedited videos; by contrast, concerning duration judgments, participants overestimated the duration of fast‐paced videos compared to the master‐shot videos. Both the slow‐ and the fast‐paced editing generated shorter fixations than the master shot, and the fast‐paced editing led to shorter fixations than the slow‐paced editing. Finally, compared to the unedited condition, editing led to an overestimation of durations through increased eye mobility. These findings suggest that the editing density of moving images by increasing the number of cuts effectively altered viewers’ experience of time and add further evidence to prior research showing that performed eye movement is associated with temporal judgments. (shrink)

I propose to draw out some philosophically interesting and surprisingly contentious claims; tracing some of the history of thought on these ideas in Islamic and Western contexts; and connecting these to contemporary debates in Western Philosophy.

This thesis develops a theory of temporal binding, the process by which we temporally integrate sensory features into perceptual experiences. Psychophysical and neurophysiological findings have revealed a remarkable amount of detail into how we engage in temporal binding. However, existing theories in psychology or philosophy do not adequately account for the adaptive and flexible nature of temporal binding, nor do they explain how our capacity to engage in temporal binding connects with our experiences of time more broadly. This thesis (...) addresses these gaps. -/- In Chapter 1, I identify three explanatory problems that a theory of temporal binding must address. It must: (i) account for the many variables that influence temporal binding, (ii) address what I call the problems of neural delay and desynchronisation, and (iii) explicate the relation between the mechanisms underlying temporal binding and our apparent perceptual experiences of time. -/- Chapter 2 argues that so-called brain time theories, which take temporal binding to be the result of synchrony in neural processing, fail to address problems (i) and (ii). -/- In response, I advance my own hybrid theory of temporal binding in Chapter 3. I claim that temporal integration relies on how predictive processing and retrodictive processing are modulated by attention. This theory explains (i) and (ii) by presenting temporal binding as a flexible and adaptive hybrid process that is sensitive to goals, expectations, and actions. I present a range of consequences that follow from this. -/- Chapter 4 addresses how the hybrid theory explains (iii) the explanatory gap between our apparent perceptual experiences of time and the dissociable and fragmented mechanisms that underlie time perception. According to the hybrid theory, our phenomenology that time is perceptually unified is imposed on the world through the attentional modulation of predictive and retrodictive processing. This explanation proposes an alternative to theories that propose the empirically implausible view that the perceived unity is inherited from unity in the mechanisms underlying time perception. While my explanation comes at the ‘cost’ of deflating the phenomenology of our perceived unity of time, these deflations are based on empirically justified arguments. -/- Finally, Chapter 5 presents a framework for empirically testing predictions that the hybrid theory makes about temporal binding. This involves examining three questions about the relation between how the content and our apparent phenomenology of temporal binding depend on attention. I present some hypotheses concerning these questions and new animations that can be used to develop empirical tests of these hypotheses. I end by presenting multiple ways in which we may subjectively inflate the phenomenological richness of our experiences of temporal binding. (shrink)

Research has increasingly focussed on the benefits of meditation in everyday life and performance. Mindfulness in particular improves attention, working memory capacity, and reading comprehension. Given its emphasis on moment-to-moment awareness, we hypothesised that mindfulness meditation would alter time perception. Using a within-subjects design, participants carried out a temporal bisection task, where several probe durations are compared to “short” and “long” standards. Following this, participants either listened to an audiobook or a meditation that focussed on the movement of (...) breath in the body. Finally, participants completed the temporal bisection task for a second time. The control group showed no change after the listening task. However, meditation led to a relative overestimation of durations. Within an internal clock framework, a change in attentional resources can produce longer perceived durations. This meditative effect has wider implications for the use of mindfulness as an everyday practice and a basis for clinical treatment. (shrink)

When philosophers of perception contemplate concrete examples, the tendency is to choose perceptions whose content does not essentially involve time, but concern how things are at the moment they are perceived. This is true whether the cases are veridical (seeing a tree as a tree) or illusory (misperceiving the colour or spatial properties of an object). Less discussed, and arguably more complex and interesting cases do involve time as an essential element: perceiving movement, for example, or perceiving (...) the order and comparative duration of events. And, like other kinds of perception, time perception can involve illusions, such as the puzzling ‘stopped clock’ illusion. I want to suggest that these dynamic cases, and perhaps particularly those involving illusion, make a distinctive contribution to the direct realist/sense datum theory debate over perception, and they undermine a popular argument in favour of the objective passage of time, namely that passage is an ineliminable feature of our temporal experience. (shrink)

The effect of an olfactory stimulation on the perception of time was investigated through two different experiments based on temporal bisection tasks. In experiment 1, the durations to be classified as either short or long were centered on 400 ms while in Experiment 2 there were centered on 2000 ms. The participants were different in the two experiments (36 subjects in each one). In each experiment, half of the subjects learnt the anchor durations when smelling an unpleasant odor (...) (decanoic acid) and the other half when smelling no odor. After the learning phase, both groups were tested with and without odor. The results showed opposite effects depending on the duration range. The subjects underestimated the time in the presence of the unpleasant odor in the short duration range while they overestimated it in the long duration range. The results have been discussed in the framework of the pacemaker-counter clock model and a potential emotional effect induced by the odor on the subjective time perception has also been considered. (shrink)

We have many biological systems that regulate the perception of time, which is one of our most essential abilities that allows subjectively predicting, perceiving and understanding the duration of experiences, feelings and achievements. There are findings obtained from many studies aiming to illuminate the place and importance of time, which was the most critical reference point for human understanding of life in the past, for us mammals. According to these findings, it is observed that there is a (...) similar mechanism that provides the perception of time in almost every living organism. Time perception is vital for the healthy functioning of cognitive activities, physiological needs and behavioral relations, and the bio-psycho-social order's systematicity. Among the studies conducted, the findings obtained in the studies related to the effect of psychiatric disorders on the perception of time are somewhat blurry compared to the others. The research for this study was based on six basic Polymorphisms known to affect time perception and internal clock mechanisms. These are as follows: SLC6A4 / 5-HTTLPR, 5HT2A / T102C, DRD2 / TAQ1A, SLC6A3 / 3UTR VNTR, COMT / VAL158MET, GABRB2 A/C, CLOCK. In our study, the relationship between the rs1800497 polymorphism, which is one of these seven polymorphisms that are effective in the functioning of the internal clock in the human brain, and the inventory used in the measurement of anxiety, was examined in 14 participants. Beck Anxiety Inventory was used to measure anxiety, and PCR was used to detect genetic variants. When the findings were evaluated, no significant relationship was found between anxiety and DRD2 rs1800497 polymorphism. ER -. (shrink)

Pain has not only sensory, but also emotional and cognitive, components. Some studies have explored the effect of pain on time perception, but the results remain controversial. Whether individual pain-related emotional and cognitive factors play roles in this process should also be explored. In this study, we investigated the effect of electrical stimulation–induced pain on interval timing using a temporal bisection task. During each task session, subjects received one of five types of stimulation randomly: no stimulus and 100 (...) and 300 ms of non-painful and painful stimulation. Pain-related emotional and cognitive factors were measured using a series of questionnaires. The proportion of “long” judgments of a 1,200-ms visual stimulus duration was significantly smaller with 300 ms painful stimulation than with no stimulus and 100 ms and 300 ms non-painful stimulation. The point of subjective equality did not differ among sessions, but the average Weber fraction was higher for painful sessions than for no-stimulus session. The pain fear score correlated positively with the PSE under 100 ms non-painful and painful and 300 ms painful stimulation. Pain catastrophizing and pain anxiety scores correlated significantly with the WF under no stimulus and 100 ms non-painful stimulation, respectively. These results suggest that electrical stimulation–induced pain affects temporal sensitivity, and that pain-related emotional and cognitive factors are associated with the processing of time perception. (shrink)

This paper experimentally studies the relationship between happiness, attention and time perception. The experimental results challenge the prevailing results in the economic and psychological literature. A Go/No-Go test reveals a clear negative correlation between happiness and attention: the subject who is happier is also more inattentive, probably because of his or her state of lightheartedness, a state of mind that seems to negatively affect performance. Furthermore, the fact that happier subjects evaluate the passage of time with different (...) objective and subjective measures opens up paths of further research in assessing a new feature of happiness. (shrink)

The COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly restructured daily life, significantly impacting mental health. This negative event has been reported to alter subjective experience of time, such as the blending of days, reflecting distortions in long-term time perception over relatively coarse scales. However, the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on short-term time perception over fine scales has received much less attention. Here we delve into this underexplored territory, demonstrating that the pandemic, as a high-arousal negative event, lengthens (...) our perception of short time intervals. Using a two-session duration discrimination paradigm, we showed that COVID-19 related images were perceived as significantly longer than neutral pictures of the same duration. Unlike emotion-induced temporal distortions, this dilation was consistent across sessions, correlated with heightened arousal, remained unaffected by anxiety, and exhibited a long-lasting effect – persisting even four years after the initial outbreak. Taken together, our findings highlight a temporal dilation induced by COVID-19 stimuli, extending our understanding of how high-arousal negative events interact with cognitive processes, particularly time perception. (shrink)

Humans perceive time with millisecond precision. However, when experiencing negative or fearful events, time appears to slow down and aversive events are judged to last longer than neutral or positive events of equal duration. Feelings of control have been shown to attenuate increases in arousal triggered by anxiety-provoking events. Here, we tested whether feelings of control can go as far as influencing people’s perception of the world, by modulating the perceived duration of aversive events. Observers judged the (...) duration of images depicting positive or negative content, and we manipulated the amount of control experienced by participants. Crucially, participants never had any real control over events. All control was illusory. Results showed that when participants experienced low levels of control, negative images were judged as lasting longer than positive images. However, when participants illusorily experienced high levels of control, they no longer experienced aversive negative images as lasting longer than positive images. (shrink)

Time distortion in individuals with social anxiety has been defined as the seemingly slower passage of time in social situations and is related to both arousal and valence. Consequently, adaptive behavior is disrupted and interpersonal situations avoided. We explored the effects of valence and arousal on time distortion in individuals with social anxiety. Participants were assigned to two groups, High Anxiety (HA) and Low Anxiety (LA), presented with four types of facial expression stimuli (positive-high arousal, positive-low arousal, (...) negative-high arousal, and negative-low arousal), and asked to estimate the duration of stimulus presentation. Results indicated that, relative to other stimuli, the HA and LA groups perceived longer presentation for high-arousal negative and low-arousal positive stimuli, respectively. These findings suggest that anxious individuals’ time distortion was more severe in situations that evoked high arousal and involved negative emotion. (shrink)