Abstract

In this article, I present different readings of Confucius's irony in the Analects (or Lunyu 論語) and expand on the implications of irony for how we perceive Confucius. Scholars who have appreciated the irony of Confucius tend to see it as distinctive of an unsagely, everyday man, often juxtaposed to the dominant image of the Master as a hyperserious sage. Moreover, irony is considered a pedagogical tool. These readings mainly recognize verbal irony (Confucius means the opposite of what he says). I discuss a second type of irony: complex irony (Confucius both means and does not mean what he says). I argue that sageliness is not incompatible with irony, and further propose that complex irony can be found beyond the sentence level; it can be the feature of the relation between specific sayings. Adapting to his interlocutors' diverse personalities and needs, and to a constantly changing world, Confucius sometimes provides different and even conflicting answers to the same questions, based on contextual appropriateness. Each answer is meant to be taken literally and fits one concrete situation. The same answer, however, can be simultaneously ineffective or even dangerous in another albeit seemingly similar context. Thus Confucius sometimes both means what he says and does not mean it in an absolute sense.