Skip to main content
Skip main navigation
 
Reviews
1 June 1998

Mosquitoes and Mosquito Repellents: A Clinician's Guide

Author: Mark S. Fradin, MDAuthor, Article, & Disclosure Information
Publication: Annals of Internal Medicine
Volume 128, Number 11
https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-128-11-199806010-00013
Get Access

Submit a Comment

Contributors must reveal any conflict of interest. Comments are moderated. Please see our information for authorsregarding comments on an Annals publication.

Abstract

This paper is intended to provide the clinician with the detailed and scientific information needed to advise patients who seek safe and effective ways of preventing mosquito bites.For this review, clinical and analytical data were selected from peer-reviewed research studies and review articles, case reports, entomology texts and journals, and government and industry publications. Relevant information was identified through a search of the MEDLINE database, the World Wide Web, the Mosquito-L electronic mailing list, and the Extension Toxicology Network database; selected U.S. Army, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and U.S. Department of Agriculture publications were also reviewed.
N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide (DEET) is the most effective, and best studied, insect repellent currently on the market. This substance has a remarkable safety profile after 40 years of worldwide use, but toxic reactions can occur (usually when the product is misused). When DEET-based repellents are applied in combination with permethrin-treated clothing, protection against bites of nearly 100% can be achieved. Plant-based repellents are generally less effective than DEET-based products. Ultrasonic devices, outdoor bug “zappers,” and bat houses are not effective against mosquitoes. Highly sensitive persons may want to take oral antihistamines to minimize cutaneous reactions to mosquito bites.

Get full access to this article

View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.

Get Access

References

1.
Taubes G. A mosquito bites back. The New York Times Magazine. 1977; 24 Aug:40-6.
Google Scholar
2.
Shell ER. Resurgence of a deadly disease. The Atlantic Monthly. 1997; Aug:45-60.
Google Scholar
3.
Clements AN. The Physiology of Mosquitoes. Oxford: Pergamon Pr; 1963.
Google Scholar
4.
Miike L. Do insects transmit AIDS? Washington, DC: Office of Technology Assessment Health Program, U.S. Congress; 1987.
Google Scholar
5.
McHugh CP. Arthropods: vectors of disease agents. Laboratory Medicine. 1994; 25:429-37.
Google Scholar
6.
Maibach HI, Skinner WA, Strauss WG, Khan AA. Factors that attract and repel mosquitoes in human skin. JAMA. 1966; 196:263-6.
Google Scholar
7.
Curtis CF. Fact and fiction in mosquito attraction and repulsion. Parasitology Today. 1986; 2:316-8.
Google Scholar
8.
Keystone JS. Of bites and body odour. Lancet. 1996; 347:1423.
Google Scholar
9.
Bock GR, Cardew G, eds. Olfaction in Mosquito-Host Interactions. New York: J Wiley; 1996.
Google Scholar
10.
Bowen MF. The sensory physiology of host-seeking behavior in mosquitoes. Annu Rev Entomol. 1991; 36:139-58.
Google Scholar
11.
Davis EE, Bowen MF. Sensory physiological basis for attraction in mosquitoes. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1994; 10(2 Pt 2):316-25.
Google Scholar
12.
Gjullin CM. Effect of clothing color on the rate of attack of Aedes mosquitoes. J Econ Entomol. 1947; 40:326-7.
Google Scholar
13.
Gillies MT. The role of carbon dioxide in host-finding by mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae): a review. Bulletin of Entomological Research. 1980; 70:525-32.
Google Scholar
14.
Gillies MT, Wilkes TJ. The range of attraction of animal baits and carbon dioxide for mosquitoes. Studies in a freshwater area of West Africa. Bulletin of Entomological Research. 1972; 61:389-404.
Google Scholar
15.
Snow WF. The effect of a reduction in expired carbon dioxide on the attractiveness of human subjects to mosquitoes. Bulletin of Entomological Research. 1970; 60:43-8.
Google Scholar
16.
Davis EE, Sokolove PG. Lactic acid-sensitive receptors on the antennae of the mosquito, Aedes aegypti. J Comp Physiol. 1976; 105:43-54.
Google Scholar
17.
Khan AA. Mosquito attractants and repellents. In: Shorey HH, McKelvey JJ, eds. Chemical Control of Insect Behavior. New York: J Wiley; 1977:305-25.
Google Scholar
18.
de Jong R, Knols BG. Selection of biting sites by mosquitoes. In: Bock GR, Cardew G, eds. Olfaction in Mosquito-Host Interactions. New York: J Wiley; 1996:89-108.
Google Scholar
19.
Kline DL, Schreck CE. Personal protection afforded by controlled-release topical repellents and permethrin-treated clothing against natural populations of Aedes taeniorhynchus. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1989; 5:77-80.
Google Scholar
20.
Schreck CE, Kline DL, Carlson DA. Mosquito attraction to substances from the skin of different humans. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1990; 6:406-10.
Google Scholar
21.
Knols BG, de Jong R, Takken W. Trapping system for testing olfactory responses of the malarial mosquito Anopheles gambiae in a wind tunnel. Med Vet Entomol. 1994; 8:386-8.
Google Scholar
22.
Geier M, Sass H, Boeckh J. A search for components in human body odour that attract females of Aedes aegypti. In: Bock GR, Cardew G, eds. Olfaction in Mosquito-Host Interactions. New York: J Wiley; 1996:132-48.
Google Scholar
23.
Foster WA, Hancock RG. Nectar-related olfactory and visual attractants for mosquitoes. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1994; 10 (2 Pt 2):288-96.
Google Scholar
24.
Curtis CF, Lines JD, Ijumba J, Callaghan A, Hill N, Karimzad MA. The relative efficacy of repellents against mosquito vectors of disease. Med Vet Entomol. 1987; 1:109-19.
Google Scholar
25.
Muirhead-Thomson RC. The distribution of anopheline mosquito bites among different age groups. Br Med J. 1951; 1:1114-7.
Google Scholar
26.
Gilbert IH, Gouck HK, Smith N. Attractiveness of men and women to Aedes aegypti and relative protection time obtained with DEET. Florida Entomologist. 1966; 49:53-66.
Google Scholar
27.
Port GR, Boreham PFL. The relationship of host size to feeding by mosquitoes of the Anopheles gambiae Giles complex (Diptera: Culicidae). Bulletin of Entomological Research. 1980; 70:133-44.
Google Scholar
28.
Khan AA, Maibach HI, Strauss WG, Fenley WR. Vitamin B1 is not a systemic mosquito repellent in man. Trans St Johns Hosp Dermatol Soc. 1969; 55:99-102.
Google Scholar
29.
Strauss WG, Maibach HI, Khan AA. Drugs and disease as mosquito repellents in man. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1968; 17:461-4.
Google Scholar
30.
Davis EE. Insect repellents: concepts of their mode of action relative to potential sensory mechanisms in mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol. 1985; 22:237-43.
Google Scholar
31.
Wright RH. Why mosquito repellents repel. Sci Am. 1975; 233:104-11.
Google Scholar
32.
Rutledge LC, Collister DM, Meixsell VE, Eisenberg GH. Comparative sensitivity of representative mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) to repellents. J Med Entomol. 1983; 20:506-10.
Google Scholar
33.
Schreck CE. Protection from blood-feeding arthropods. In: Auerbach PS, ed. Wilderness Medicine: Management of Wilderness and Environmental Emergencies. 3d ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 1995:813-30.
Google Scholar
34.
Maibach HI, Akers WA, Johnson HL, Khan AA, Skinner WA. Insects. Topical insect repellents. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1974; 16(5 Part 2):970-3.
Google Scholar
35.
Maibach HI, Khan AA, Akers WA. Use of insect repellents for maximum efficacy. Arch Dermatol. 1974; 109:32-5.
Google Scholar
36.
Gabel ML, Spencer TS, Akers WA. Evaporation rates and protection times of mosquito repellents. Mosquito News. 1976; 36:141-6.
Google Scholar
37.
Khan AA, Maibach HI, Skidmore DL. A study of insect repellents: effect of temperature on protection time. J Econ Entomol. 1972; 66:437-8.
Google Scholar
38.
Quarles W. Lighted and baited mosquito traps. Common Sense Pest Control. 1996; 12:5-11.
Google Scholar
39.
Jacobson M, ed. Glossary of plant-derived insect deterrents. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Pr; 1990.
Google Scholar
40.
King WV. Chemicals evaluated as insecticides and repellents at Orlando, Fla. USDA Agricultural Handbook. 1954; 69:1-397.
Google Scholar
41.
Materials evaluated as insecticides, repellents, and chemosterilants at Orlando and Gainesville, Fla., 1952-1964. USDA Agricultural Handbook. 1967; 340:1-424.
Google Scholar
42.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances. Special Pesticide Review Division. N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET) Pesticide Registration Standard (EPA-540/RS-81-004). Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1980. (PB81-207722)
Google Scholar
43.
Rutledge LC, Wirtz RA, Buescher MD, Mehr ZA. Mathematical models of the effectiveness and persistence of mosquito repellents. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1985; 1:56-61.
Google Scholar
44.
Buescher MD, Rutledge LC, Wirtz RA. Tests of commercial repellents on human skin against Aedes aegypti. Mosquito News. 1982; 42:428-33.
Google Scholar
45.
Buescher MD, Rutledge LC, Wirtz RA, Nelson JH. The dose-persistence relationship of deet against Aedes aegypti. Mosquito News. 1983; 43:364-6.
Google Scholar
46.
Schreck CE, McGovern TP. Repellents and other personal protection strategies against Aedes albopictus. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1989; 5:247-50.
Google Scholar
47.
Mehr ZA, Rutledge LC, Morales EL, Meixsell VE, Korte DW. Laboratory evaluation of controlled-release insect repellent formulations. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1985; 1:143-7.
Google Scholar
48.
Gupta RK, Rutledge LC. Laboratory evaluation of controlled-release repellent formulations on human volunteers under three climatic regimens. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1989; 5:52-5.
Google Scholar
49.
Schreck CE, Kline DL. Repellency of two controlled-release formulations of deet against Anopheles quadrimaculatus and Aedes taeniorhynchus mosquitoes. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1989; 5:91-4.
Google Scholar
50.
Annis B. Comparison of the effectiveness of two formulations of deet against Anopheles flavirostris. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1990; 6:430-2.
Google Scholar
51.
Gupta RK, Rutledge LC. Controlled release repellent formulations on human volunteers under three climatic regimens. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1991; 7:490-3.
Google Scholar
52.
Domb AJ, Marlinsky A, Maniar M, Teomim L. Insect repellent formulations of N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (deet) in a liposphere system: efficacy and skin uptake. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1995; 11:29-34.
Google Scholar
53.
Garrettson LK. Commentary-DEET: caution for children still needed. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1997; 35:443-5.
Google Scholar
54.
Shelov SP, ed. Caring for Your Baby and Young Child: Birth to Age 5. New York: Bantam Books; 1991:639.
Google Scholar
55.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs. Using Insect Repellents Safely (EPA-735/F-93-052R). Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1996.
Google Scholar
56.
Rutledge LC. Some corrections to the record on insect repellents and attractants. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1988; 4:414-25.
Google Scholar
57.
Montemarano AD, Gupta RK, Burge JR, Klein K. Insect repellents and the efficacy of sunscreens. Lancet. 1997; 349:1670-1.
Google Scholar
58.
Selim S, Hartnagel RE Jr, Osimitz TG, Gabriel KL, Schoenig GP. Absorption, metabolism, and excretion of N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide following dermal application to human volunteers. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1995; 25:95-100.
Google Scholar
59.
Robbins PJ, Cherniack MG. Review of the biodistribution and toxicity of the insect repellent N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET). J Toxicol Environ Health. 1986; 18:503-25.
Google Scholar
60.
Qiu H, Jun HW, Tao J. Pharmacokinetics of insect repellent N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide in beagle dogs following intravenous and topical routes of administration. J Pharm Sci. 1997; 86:514-6.
Google Scholar
61.
Schoenig GP, Hartnagel RE Jr, Osimitz TG, Llanso S. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide in the rat. Drug Metab Dispos. 1996; 24:156-63.
Google Scholar
62.
Reifenrath W, Hawkins G, Kurtz M, Bernardo E, Dahlberg E, Jesse R. Controlled Release Personal Use Arthropod Repellent Formulation: In Vitro Evaluation of Evaporation/Penetration Characteristics, Water Wash Resistance, and Interaction with CW Agent Analogs. San Francisco: Presidio of San Francisco; Division of Cutaneous Hazards, Letterman Institute of Research; 1986.
Google Scholar
63.
Osimitz TG, Grothaus RH. The present safety assessment of DEET. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1995; 11(2 Pt 2):274-8.
Google Scholar
64.
Completed Studies for the DEET Toxicology Data Development Program. Washington, DC: The DEET Joint Venture Group, Chemical Specialties Manufacturers Association; 1996.
Google Scholar
65.
Snyder JW, Poe RO, Stubbins JF, Garrettson LK. Acute manic psychosis following the dermal application of N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET) in an adult. Clin Toxicol. 1986; 24:429-39.
Google Scholar
66.
Heick HM, Peterson RG, Dalpe-Scott M, Qureshi IA. Insect repellent, N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide, effect on ammonia metabolism. Pediatrics. 1988; 82:373-6.
Google Scholar
67.
Heick HM, Shipman RT, Norman MG, James W. Reye-like syndrome associated with use of insect repellent in a presumed heterozygote for ornithine carbamoyl transferase deficiency. J Pediatr. 1980; 97:471-3.
Google Scholar
68.
de Garbino JP, Laborde A. Toxicity of an insect repellent: N-N-diethyltoluamide. Vet Hum Toxicol. 1983; 25:422-3.
Google Scholar
69.
Zadikoff CM. Toxic encephalopathy associated with use of insect repellant. J Pediatr. 1979; 95:140-2.
Google Scholar
70.
Osimitz TG, Murphy JV. Neurological effects associated with use of the insect repellent N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET). J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1997; 35:435-41.
Google Scholar
71.
Lipscomb JW, Kramer JE, Leikin JB. Seizure following brief exposure to the insect repellent N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide. Ann Emerg Med. 1992; 21:315-7.
Google Scholar
72.
Gryboski J, Weinstein D, Ordway NK. Toxic encephalopathy apparently related to the use of an insect repellent. N Engl J Med. 1961; 264:289-91.
Google Scholar
73.
Roland EH, Jan JE, Rigg JM. Toxic encephalopathy in a child after brief exposure to insect repellents. Can Med Assoc J. 1985; 132:155-6.
Google Scholar
74.
Seizures temporally associated with the use of DEET insect repellent-New York and Connecticut. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1989; 38:678-80.
Google Scholar
75.
Edwards DL, Johnson CE. Insect-repellent-induced toxic encephalopathy in a child. Clin Pharm. 1987; 6:496-8.
Google Scholar
76.
Veltri JC, Osimitz TG, Bradford DC, Page BC. Retrospective analysis of calls to poison control centers resulting from exposure to the insect repellent N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET) from 1985-1989. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1994; 32:1-16.
Google Scholar
77.
Tenenbein M. Severe toxic reactions and death following the ingestion of diethyltoluamide-containing insect repellents. JAMA. 1987; 258:1509-11.
Google Scholar
78.
Leach GJ, Russell RD, Houpt JT. Some cardiovascular effects of the insect repellent N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET). J Toxicol Environ Health. 1988; 25:217-25.
Google Scholar
79.
Clem JR, Havemann DF, Raebel MA. Insect repellent (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide) cardiovascular toxicity in an adult. Ann Pharmacother. 1993; 27:289-93.
Google Scholar
80.
Miller JD. Anaphylaxis associated with insect repellent. N Engl J Med. 1982; 307:1341-2.
Google Scholar
81.
von Mayenburg J, Rakoski J. Contact urticaria to diethyltoluamide. Contact Dermatitis. 1994; 9:171.
Google Scholar
82.
Maibach HI, Johnson HL. Contact urticaria syndrome. Contact urticaria to diethyltoluamide (immediate-type sensitivity). Arch Dermatol. 1975; 111:726-30.
Google Scholar
83.
Wantke F, Focke M, Hemmer W, Gotz M, Jarisch R. Generalized urticaria induced by a diethyltoluamide-containing insect repellent in a child. Contact Dermatitis. 1996; 35:186-7.
Google Scholar
84.
Amichai B, Lazarov A, Halevy S. Contact dermatitis from diethyltoluamide. Contact Dermatitis. 1994; 30:188.
Google Scholar
85.
Reuveni H, Yagupsky P. Diethyltoluamide-containing insect repellent: adverse effects in worldwide use. Arch Dermatol. 1982; 118:582-3.
Google Scholar
86.
Lamberg SI, Mulrennan JA Jr. Bullous reaction to diethyl toluamide (DEET). Resembling a blistering insect eruption. Arch Dermatol. 1969; 100:582-6.
Google Scholar
87.
Sukumar K, Perich MJ, Boobar LR. Botanical derivatives in mosquito control: a review. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1991; 7:210-37.
Google Scholar
88.
Quarles W. Botanical mosquito repellents. Common Sense Pest Control. 1996; 12:12-9.
Google Scholar
89.
Grainger J, Moore C. Natural Insect Repellents for Pets, People and Plants. Austin: The Herb Bar; 1991.
Google Scholar
90.
Brown M, Hebert AA. Insect repellents: an overview. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997; 36(2 Pt 1):243-9.
Google Scholar
91.
Duke J. USDA Agricultural Research Service Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases. (http://www.ars-grin.gov/ngrlsb/)
Google Scholar
92.
Spero NC. Repellent Testing against Adult Mosquitoes in the Laboratory. Baltimore: Insect Control and Research; 1993. Sponsored by Quantum, Inc.
Google Scholar
93.
Surgeoner GA. Efficacy of Buzz Away Oil against spring Aedes spp. mosquitoes. Guelph, Ontario: Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph; 1995. Sponsored by Quantum, Inc.
Google Scholar
94.
Lindsay RL, Surgeoner GA, Heal JD, Gallivan GJ. Evaluation of the efficacy of 3% citronella candles and 5% citronella incense for protection against field populations of Aedes mosquitoes. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1996; 12(2 Pt 1):293-4.
Google Scholar
95.
Matsuda BM, Surgeoner GA, Heal JD, Tucker AO, Maciarello MJ. Essential oil analysis and field evaluation of the citrosa plant “Pelargonium citrosum” as a repellent against populations of Aedes mosquitoes. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1996; 12:69-74.
Google Scholar
96.
Cilek JE, Schreiber ET. Failure of the “mosquito plant”, Pelargonium x citrosum ‘van Leenii’, to repel adult Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus in Florida. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1994; 10:473-6.
Google Scholar
97.
Finally, a safer insect repellent. University of California at Berkeley Wellness Letter. 1997; 13:2.
Google Scholar
98.
Lindsay RL, Heal JD, Surgeoner GA. Comparative evaluation of the efficacy of Bite Blocker, Off! Skintastic, and Avon Skin-So-Soft to protect against Aedes species mosquitoes in Ontario. Guelph, Ontario: Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph; 1996. Sponsored by Chemfree Environment, Inc.
Google Scholar
99.
Lindsay RL, Heal JD, Surgeoner GA. Evaluation of Bite Blocker as a repellent against spring Aedes spp. mosquitoes. Guelph, Ontario: Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph; 1996. Sponsored by Chemfree Environment, Inc.
Google Scholar
100.
Casida JE, Quistad GB. Pyrethrum flowers: production, chemistry, toxicology and uses. Oxford: Oxford Univ Pr; 1995.
Google Scholar
101.
Insect repellents. Med Lett Drugs Ther. 1989; 31:45-7.
Google Scholar
102.
Schreck CE. Permethrin and dimethyl phthalate as tent fabric treatments against Aedes aegypti. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1991; 7:533-5.
Google Scholar
103.
Lines JD, Myamba J, Curtis CF. Experimental hut trials of permethrin-impregnated mosquito nets and eave curtains against malaria vectors in Tanzania. Med Vet Entomol. 1987; 1:37-51.
Google Scholar
104.
Schreck CE, Posey K, Smith D. Durability of permethrin as a potential clothing treatment to protect against blood-feeding arthropods. J Econ Entomol. 1978; 71:397-400.
Google Scholar
105.
Schreck CE, Carlson DA, Weidhass DE, Posey K, Smith D. Wear and aging tests with permethrin-treated cotton-polyester fabric. J Econ Entomol. 1980; 73:451-3.
Google Scholar
106.
Gupta RK, Sweeney AW, Rutledge LC, Cooper RD, Frances SP, Westrom DR. Effectiveness of controlled-release personal-use arthropod repellents and permethrin-impregnated clothing in the field. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1987; 3:556-60.
Google Scholar
107.
Sholdt LL, Schreck CE, Qureshi A, Mammino S, Aziz A, Iqbal M. Field bioassays of permethrin-treated uniforms and a new extended duration repellent against mosquitoes in Pakistan. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1988; 4:233-6.
Google Scholar
108.
Lillie TH, Schreck CE, Rahe AJ. Effectiveness of personal protection against mosquitoes in Alaska. J Med Entomol. 1988; 25:475-8.
Google Scholar
109.
Belton P. An acoustic evaluation of electronic mosquito repellers. Mosquito News. 1981; 41:751-5.
Google Scholar
110.
Lewis DJ, Fairchild WL, Leprince DJ. Evaluation of an electronic mosquito repeller. Canadian Entomologist. 1982; 114:699-702.
Google Scholar
111.
Foster WA, Lutes KI. Tests of ultrasonic emissions on mosquito attraction to hosts in a flight chamber. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1985; 1:199-202.
Google Scholar
112.
Mitchell M. Mythical mosquito control. Wing Beats. 1992; 3:18-20.
Google Scholar
113.
Nascl RS, Harris CW, Porter CK. Failure of an insect electrocuting device to reduce mosquito biting. Mosquito News. 1983; 43:180-3.
Google Scholar
114.
Frick TB, Tallamy DW. Density and diversity of non-target insects killed by suburban electric insect traps. Entomological News. 1996; 2:77-82.
Google Scholar
115.
McCormack DR, Salata KF, Hershey JN, Carpenter GB, Engler RJ. Mosquito bite anaphylaxis: immunotherapy with whole body extracts. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1995; 74:39-44.
Google Scholar
116.
Reunala T, Brummer-Korvenkontio H, Palosuo T. Are we really allergic to mosquito bites? Ann Med. 1994; 26:301-6.
Google Scholar
117.
Reunala T, Brummer-Korvenkontio H, Lappalainen P, Rasanen L, Palosuo T. Immunology and treatment of mosquito bites. Clin Exp Allergy. 1990; 20 Suppl 4:19-24.
Google Scholar
118.
Reunala T, Lappalainen P, Brummer-Korvenkontio H, Coulie P, Palosuo T. Cutaneous reactivity to mosquito bites: effect of cetirizine and development of anti-mosquito antibodies. Clin Exp Allergy. 1991; 21:617-22.
Google Scholar
119.
Brummer-Korvenkontio H, Lappalainen P, Reunala T, Palosuo T. Immunization of rabbits with mosquito bites: immunoblot analysis of IgG antimosquito antibodies in rabbit and man. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol. 1990; 93:14-8.
Google Scholar
120.
Peng Z, Yang M, Simons FE. Immunologic mechanisms in mosquito allergy: correlation of skin reactions with specific IgE and IgG antibodies and lymphocyte proliferation response to mosquito antigens. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1996; 77:238-44.
Google Scholar
121.
Brummer-Korvenkontio H, Palosuo T, Francois G, Reunala T. Characterization of Aedes communis, Aedes aegypti and Anopheles stephensi mosquito saliva antigens by immunoblotting. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol. 1997; 112:169-74.
Google Scholar
122.
Reunala T, Brummer-Korvenkontio H, Karppinen A, Coulie P, Palosuo T. Treatment of mosquito bites with cetirizine. Clin Exp Allergy. 1993; 23:72-5.
Google Scholar

Comments

0 Comments
Sign In to Submit A Comment
|