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³³ See Juan Neftali Amador’s study contained in Fabela, Isidro (ed.), Documentos Históricos de la Revolución Mexicana, 27 Vols., (Mexico City, 1966ff) 1, pp. 17–21,Google Scholar (Document 12). Hereafter this source will be abbreviated as DHRM. See also Cumberland, Charles C., The Mexican Revolution: The Constitutionalist Years, (Austin, 1972), p. 15.Google Scholar

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³⁶ Meyer, , Huerta, p. 66 Google Scholar; Henry Lane Wilson to Philander C. Knox, February 20, 1913, RDS, reel 23, 812.00/6287; and Wilson to Knox, February 24, 1913, RDS, reel 23, 812.00/6353.

³⁷ Philander C. Knox to Henry Lane Wilson, February 28, 1913, RDS, reel 23, 812.00/6431A.

³⁸ Although not the first to rebel against Porfirio Díaz, Zapata did initiate the first rebellion against Francisco Madero. In addition, he fought against Huerta, Venustiano Carranza, and all the short-term executives who controlled Mexico City during the decade of violence; see Womack, John, Zapata and the Mexican Revolution, (New York, 1968) pp. 161–67Google Scholar; Meyer, , Huerta, pp. 83–86,Google Scholar and Cumberland, , Constitutionalist Years, pp. 30–32.Google Scholar

³⁹ Henderson, , Félix Díaz, pp. 87–90 Google Scholar; La Tribuna, February 21, 1913, and The Mexican Herald, March 3, 1913. J. A. Fernández to Secretary of Foreign Relations Francisco León de la Barra, April 4, 1913, Archivo Histórico de la Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores de México, L-E 773R, Legajo 19(9), p. 2. Henceforth this source will be cited as AREM with appropriate information.

⁴⁰ Philander C. Knox to Henry Lane Wilson, February 21, 1913, RDS, reel 23, 812.00/6325A; Wilson, , Diplomatic Episodes, 296–97.Google Scholar

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⁴² Philander C. Knox to Henry Lane Wilson, February 27, 1913, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1913, (Washington, 1916) p. 746. Hereinafter, these volumes will be cited as FR. Address by Francisco León de la Barra to the Mexican Senate, April 25,1913, Archivo Francisco León de la Barra, (Mexico City) Carpeta 3, #269, Condumex, S.A. Mexico City, Mexico. Hereafter this source will be cited as Archivo de la Barra with appropriate information.

⁴³ Grieb, Kenneth J., The United States and Huerta, (Lincoln, 1969)p. 36.Google Scholar See also Ulloa, Berta, La Revolución Intervenida: Relaciones Diplomaticos entre Mexico y los Estados Unidos, (1910–1914), (Mexico City, 1971) pp. 53–55.Google Scholar Taft did not reveal his innermost thoughts anywhere in his presidential papers, although in a letter to his brother he appeared willing to defer any decision, see William Howard Taft to Charles P. Taft, February 20, 1913, William Howard Taft Papers, Library of Congress microfilm, reel 126.

⁴⁴ Scholes, Walter and Scholes, Marie, The Foreign Policies of the Taft Administration, (Columbia, 1970) p. 103–4.Google Scholar Meyer, , Huerta, pp. 75–82,Google Scholar Henderson, , Félix Díaz, pp. 81–84.Google Scholar As early as February 25, President-elect Wilson received a letter from a concerned citizen stating that no civilized government would recognize Huerta, see Willard Simpson to Woodrow Wilson, February 25, 1913, Woodrow Wilson Archive, Library of Congress microfilm, reel 47. Most of Wilson’s important papers have been published in a multivolumes series; however, not all the items in the Wilson Archive have been reproduced. Hence, this article will occasionally refer to the Archive itself.

⁴⁵ Sterling, Manuel Márquez, Los Ultimos Días del Presidente Madero (Mexico City, 1958) pp. 343–44.Google Scholar Arturo Palomino to Francisco León de la Barra, April 21, 1913, AREM, L-E 777R, Legajo 26, describes Francisco Vásquez.Gómez’s attempt to dissuade Wilson from recognizing Huerta. See also José F. Godoy to Francisco León de la Barra, April 19, 1913, AREM, L-E 777R, Legajo 26. Venustiano Carranza to William Howard Taft, February 26,1913, DHRM, I, pp. 11–12, (Document 9).

⁴⁶ The United States Ambassador described President Wilson as being so inflexible that his “preconceived views… rendered discussion and a faithful presentation of the situation difficult.” Wilson, , Diplomatic Episodes, p. 313 Google Scholar; Link, , The Diplomatist, p. 5.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Gilderhus, Mark T., Diplomacy and Revolution: US.-Mexican Relations under Wilson and Carranza (Tucson, 1977) p. 6.Google Scholar Link, , The Diplomatist, pp. 12–15 Google Scholar; Notter, Harley, The Origins of the Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson, (Baltimore, 1937) p. 228.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Bemis, Samuel F., The American Secretaries of State and their Diplomacy, 13 Vols. (New York, 1927–65), 10, p. 8.Google Scholar Huntington Wilson, Frances, Memoirs of an Ex-Diplomat, (Boston, 1945) p. 246.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Henry F. Tennant to Nelson O’Shaughnessy, July 17,1913, O’Shaughnessy Papers, Box 1; Blum, John M., Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality, (Boston, 1956) p. 86.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Gilderhus, , Diplomacy and Revolution, p. ix.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Link, Arthur S., (ed.) The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 42 Vols., (Princeton, 1978) 27, pp. 172–73,Google Scholar cited hereinafter as Wilson Papers.

⁵² Houston, David F., Eight Years with Wilson’s Cabinet, (Garden City, N.Y., 1926) p. 44 Google Scholar; Daniels, Josephus, The Wilson Era: Years of Peace—1910–1917, (Chapel Hill, 1944) p. 157 Google Scholar; Coletta, Paolo E., William Jennings Bryan: Progressive Republican and Moral Statesman, 1909–1915, 2 Vols., (Lincoln, 1969) 2, 148,Google Scholar and Bryan, William Jennings and Bryan, Mary B., The Memoirs of William Jennings Bryan, (Chicago, 1925) pp. 358–59Google Scholar; Cronon, E. David (ed.), The Cabinet Diaries of Josephus Daniels, 1913–1921, (Lincoln, 1963) p. 7.Google Scholar

⁵³ Meyer, , Huerta, pp. 137–38Google Scholar; Charles Willis Thompson to Reuben A. Bull, May 22,1913, Wilson Papers, xxvii, 465, describing Wilson’s statement to Jim Doyle.

⁵⁴ Diary of Colonel House, March 8, 1913, cited in Wilson Papers, XXVII, p. 163, and Diary of Colonel House, March 25,1913, cìted in Wilson Papers, xxvii, 227–29. See also Teitelbaum, Louis M., Woodrow Wilson and the Mexican Revolution 1913–1916, (New York, 1967) p. 33.Google Scholar Ambassador Wilson, surprisingly enough, had several close friends in the new administration. They pressured cabinet member David Houston to retain the Ambassador despite the fact that he was a Republican, because of his fervid defense of United States property interests in Mexico. See W. H. Turner and William Burges to David Houston, March 27, 1913, Wilson Archive, reel 48. Houston marked the letter worthy of attention and passed it on to the President. See Ambassador Bryce to Sir Edward Grey, April 1, 1913, British Foreign Office Reports, (University of Texas microfilm) 1672/16742. Hereinafter this source will be cited as FO with appropriate information.

⁵⁵ Philander C. Knox to Henry Lane Wilson, January 9, 1913, FR, 1913, p. 926.

⁵⁶ Henry Lane Wilson to William Jennings Bryan, March 13, 1913, RDS, reel 24, 812.00/6681. Wilson, , Diplomatic Episodes, p. 297.Google Scholar Francisco León de la Barra to the Mexican Senate (an address), April 25, 1913, Archivo de la Barra, Carpeta 3, #269.

⁵⁷ Henry Lane Wilson to Philander C. Knox, various dates, FR, 1913, 972–74. Liss, Sheldon, A Century of Disagreement: The Chamizal Controversy, 1864–1964, (Washington, 1965) pp. 42–46.Google Scholar Henry Lane Wilson to William Jennings Bryan, May 8, 1913, RDS, reel 25, 812.00/7431.

⁵⁸ Henry Lane Wilson to William Jennings Bryan, May 3, 1913, FR, 1913, p. 993. Francisco León de la Barra’s speech to the Mexican Senate, April 25, 1913, Archivo de la Barra, Carpeta 3, #269; Philander C. Knox to Henry Lane Wilson, February 8, 1913, FR, 1913, p. 992; and Henry Lane Wilson to William Jennings Bryan, May 8,1913, RDS, reel 25,812.00/7431. See also Hundley, Norris Jr., Dividing the Waters: A Century of Conflict between the United States and Mexico, (Berkeley, 1966) pp. 38–40.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Henry Lane Wilson to William Jennings Bryan, May 3, 1913, FR, 1913, pp. 993–1008. The chargé d’affairs reported that Henry Lane Wilson should receive credit for the successful resolution of the Tlahualilo case, see Nelson O’Shaughnessy to James Potter Brown, August 27, 1913, O’Shaughnessy Papers, Box 1.

⁶⁰ John Bassett Moore to Henry Lane Wilson, June 21, 1913, FR, 1913, pp. 948–49.

⁶¹ F. González Gante to Venustiano Carranza, May 2, 1913, DHRM, I, p. 26 (document 18). Proclamation of Venustiano Carranza, May 10, 1913, FR, 1913, p. 955.

⁶² Notter, , The Origins, pp. 249–50.Google Scholar Colonel House to Woodrow Wilson, May 6, 1913, Wilson Papers, xxvii, 404–05. Baker, Ray S., Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters: President 1913–1914, 8 Vols., (Garden City, N.Y., 1931) 4, p. 247.Google Scholar While a practicing attorney, Haff had represented several United States investers in Mexico, particularly oilman Edward Doheny. See Katz, Frederick, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution, (Chicago, 1981) pp. 159–60.Google Scholar Haley, P. Edward, The Diplomacy of Taft and Wilson with Mexico, 1910–1917, (Cambridge, Mass, 1970) pp. 85–86.Google Scholar Meyer, , Huerta, p. 113.Google Scholar For the details of the plan, see Delbert J. Haff to Woodrow Wilson, May 12, 1913, Wilson Papers, xxvii, pp. 419–25. By July, Dodge had changed his tune, and expressed his approval of Wilson’s non-recognition policy, Cleveland Dodge to Woodrow Wilson, July 14,1913, Wilson Archive, reel 50. Diary of Colonel House, May 2,1913, Wilson Papers, xxvii, p. 383. Memorandum of Fred Dealing, April 16,1913, RDS, reel 25,812.00/8070. Boaz Long, the head of the Latin American Division, took a contrary position, see his memorandum to William Jennings Bryan, May 25, 1913, RDS, reel 25, 812.00/7177. Huntington-Wilson, no longer a member of the government, also favored recognition, see Huntington Wilson, , Memoirs, p. 249.Google Scholar

⁶³ John Bassett Moore to Woodrow Wilson, May 15, 1913, Wilson Papers, xxvii, p. 437.

⁶⁴ Haley, , Diplomacy, p. 119.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Baker, , Woodrow Wilson, p. 248.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Coletta, , William Jennings Bryan, 2, p. 149.Google Scholar Tumulty, Joseph, Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him, (Garden City, N. Y. 1921) pp. 147–48,Google Scholar mentions that Secretary of War Lindley Garrison in particular favored recognition. Houston, , Eight Years, p. 69.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Daniels, , Wilson Era, p. 157 Google Scholar; Notter, , The Origins, p. 251.Google Scholar Julius R. Kruttschnitt to William Jennings Bryan, May 26, 1913, Wilson Papers, xxvii, p. 479; William Jennings Bryan to Woodrow Wilson, May 27, 1913, Correspondence of Secretary of State Bryan with President Wilson, 1913–1915, (January 14-December 19, 1913, reel 1 (microcopy No. T-841) #0028. Hereinafter this item will be cited as Wilson-Bryan Correspondence.

⁶⁸ Henry Lane Wilson to Philander C. Knox, March 3, 1913, RDS, reel 23, 812.00/6489. Lauterpacht, , “Recognition of State,” p. 401.Google Scholar Sir Edward Grey to Frances Stronge, February 22, 1913, FO, 371/1672/13385. It was unusual, however, for Great Britain to extend formal recognition to a provisional president, Katz, , Secret War, pp. 174–5Google Scholar; Nelson O’Shaughnessy criticized Wilson’s delaying tactics, arguing that if the President had intended to deny recognition from the outset, he should have informed the rest of the world in order to minimize potential conflict with Great Britain. Nelson O’Shaughnessy to Fred Dearing, December 1, 1913, O’Shaughnessy Papers, Box 1. Calvert, Peter, The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1914: The Diplomacy of Anglo-American Conflict, (Cambridge, 1968) p. 163.Google Scholar William Jennings Bryan to Woodrow Wilson, August 2, 1913, Wilson-Bryan Correspondence, #0111. Sir Edward Grey to Frances Stronge, March 31, 1913, FO*, 371/1672/16743; Francisco León de la Barra to Frances Stronge, April 7, 1913, FO, 371/1672/ 21710; Frances Stronge to Sir Edward Grey, April 7, 1913, FO, 371/1672/21711.

⁶⁹ Germany’s view of the recognition question was “diametrically opposed” to that of the United States, see Ambassador Grew to Woodrow Wilson, August 16, 1913, Wilson Archive, reel 50; Henry Lane Wilson to William Jennings Bryan, April 11, 1913, RDS, reel 25, 812.00/7094. See also C. Romero to Sir Edward Grey, April 2, 1913, FO, 371/1672/15378. Henry Lane Wilson to William Jennings Bryan, May 12, 1913, RDS, reel 25, 812.00/7467; Minister Swenson to William Jennings Bryan, May 23, 1913, RDS, reel 26, 812.00/7715. Norway later reversed its position, see Minister Swenson to William Jennings Bryan, August 16,1913, Wilson Archive, reel 50. Henry Lane Wilson to William Jennings Bryan, May 13, 1913, RDS, reel 25, 812.00/7488; William Jennings Bryan to Henry Lane Wilson, May 19, 1913, RDS, reel 25, 812.00/7528, and Henry Lane Wilson to William Jennings Bryan, May 21, 1913, RDS, reel 25, 812.00/7566.

⁷⁰ Cecil Spring-Rice to Sir Edward Grey, May 16, 1913, FO, 371/1672/22745; Baker, , Woodrow Wilson, pp. 256–57.Google Scholar Cecil Spring-Rice to Henry Cabot Lodge, August 2, 1913, in Gwynn, Stephen, The Letters and Friendships of Sir Cecil Spring-Rice, 2 Vols. (London, 1929) 2, p. 191.Google Scholar See also Boaz Long to William Jennings Bryan, August 26, 1913, Wilson Archive, reel 50; Katz, , Secret War, pp. 163–64.Google Scholar Hendrick, Burton J., The Life and Letters of Walter H. Page, 3 Vols. (Garden City, 1926) 1, pp. 181–83.Google Scholar Seymour, Charles, The Intimate Papers of Colonel House, 4 Vols. (Boston, 1926) 1. pp. 195–96.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Sherman, William L., Victoriano Huerta: A Reappraisal, (Mexico City, 1960) p. 135.Google Scholar Scholes, , Walter, & Marie, , “Wilson, Grey, and Huerta,” Pacific Historical Review, 37 (Spring 1968) p. 151,Google Scholar and William Jennings Bryan to Woodrow Wilson, October 22, 1913, Wilson-Bryan Correspondence, #0276.

⁷² Hill, Larry D., Emissaries to a Revolution: Woodrow Wilson’s Executive Agents in Mexico, (Baton Rouge, 1973) pp. 21–23.Google Scholar Hale’s reports remained in Bryan’s possession until 1920, which explains why they appear in the State Department records at that point. Blum, , Politics of Morality, p. 88,Google Scholar and Meyer, , Huerta, pp. 114–15.Google Scholar

⁷³ Arturo M. Elias to Secretary of Foreign Relations, August 2, 1913, AREM, L-E 788R, Legajo 35(15). Francisco León de la Barra to Secretary of Foreign Relations, August 10,1913, Archivo de la Barra, Carpeta 4, #327. See also de la Barra’s letters to the Secretary dated August 9,1913, Archivo de la Barra, Carpeta 4, #306, and August 11, 1913, Archivo de la Barra, Carpeta 4, #307.

⁷⁴ De la Barra’s statement to the New York American, cited in Archivo Particular Venustiano Carranza, Condumex, S.A. Mexico City, Mexico, Carpeta 4, #523. Francisco León de la Barra to Secretary of Foreign Relations, August 26, 1913, Archivo de la Barra, Carpeta 4, #327.

⁷⁵ Coletta, , William Jennings Bryan, 2, p. 149 Google Scholar; Address of August 27 to a Joint Session of Congress, Wilson Papers, XXVIII, pp. 227–31.

⁷⁶ Katz, , Secret War, 163–64.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Turner, Frederick, “Anti-Americanism in Mexico, 1910–1913,” HAHR, 47 (November 1967) pp. 502–18.Google Scholar For the advancement of German fortunes during this period see Baecker, Thomas, “Los Interes Militares del Imperio Alemán en Mexico: 1913–1914,” Historia Mexicana, (enero-marzo, 1972) 87, pp. 347–63.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Calvert, , Anglo-American Conflict, p. 183 Google Scholar; Memorandum of Frances Stronge, May 27, 1913, FO, 371/1672/27492. Wilson, , Diplomatic Episodes, p. 300.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Turner, “Anti-Americanism;” Henry Lane Wilson to William Jennings Bryan, May 10, 1913, RDS, reel 25, 812.00/7454; William Jennings Bryan to Woodrow Wilson, June 14, 1913, Wilson-Bryan Correspondence, #0059.

⁸⁰ J. A. Fernández to Consul General in San Antonio, Texas, March 25,1913, AREM, L-E 761R, Legajo 32, at 2. See also J. H. Collard to Senator Morris Sheppard, April 16, 1913, AREM, L-E 762R, Legajo 45(2). Collard pointed out the discrepancy between the Mexican case and a recent Serbian recognition, where the United States had extended recognition to an individual who reputedly had hired soldiers to assassinate the King and Queen.

⁸¹ Cline, Herbert, The United States and Mexico, (New York, 1966) p. 136.Google Scholar Meyer, , Huerta, p. 126.Google Scholar Henry Lane Wilson to Philander C. Knox, February 21, 1913, RDS, reel 23, 812.00/6489. Arturo Elías to Secretary of Foreign Relations, July 25, 1913, AREM, L-E 846R, Legajo 1, at 83.

⁸² J. A. Fernández to Senior Consul at Marfa, Texas, May 12, 1913, AREM, L-E 773R, Legajo 19(9), at 8. Williams, , “Some Thoughts,” p. 792.Google Scholar

⁸³ Quirk, Robert, An Affair of Honor: Woodrow Wilson and the Occupation of Veracruz, (New York, 1967)Google Scholar passim; Meyer, Michael C., “The Arms of the Ypiranga,”HAHR, (August 1970)543–56.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Anon., , “The Arbitration between Great Britain and Costa Rica,” American Journal of International Law, 18, (1924) pp. 147–74.Google Scholar 1 U.N. Rep. Intl. Arb. Awards 369, quoted in Bishop, William, International Law: Cases and Materials, (New York, 1971) p. 386.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ United States Recognition of Foreign Governments, Hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 91st Cong., 1st Session, Senate Resolution 205 (June 17,1969). p. 1.