1. See, for example, Kenez, Peter, The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization, 1917–29 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bishop, Robert L., Qi Lai! Mobilizing One Billion Chinese: The Chinese Communication System (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1989)Google Scholar; Liu, Alan P. L., “Mass campaigns in the People's Republic of China during the Mao era,” in Rice, Ronald E. and Atkin, Charles K. (eds.), Public Communication Campaigns (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1981).Google Scholar

2. Kenez, The Propaganda State, introduction.

3. Lynn T. White, III discusses the financial, personnel and productive material aspects of this issue through a local case. See White, , “All the news: structure and politics in Shanghai's reform media,” in Lee, Chin-Chuan (ed.), Voices of China: The Interplay of Politics and Journalism (New York: The Guilford Press, 1990), pp. 88–110.Google Scholar

4. For example, all provincial Party committee organ newspapers reprinted the editorial of the People's Daily on 26 April 1989, which asserted that the student pro-democracy movement was a counter-revolutionary turmoil, at leading positions in the first pages. The only exception was the Hainan Daily, the official organ of the Hainan Provincial Party Committee, which reprinted it on the fourth page, usually the last page for a local Chinese newspaper. This resulted in a forced self-criticism by leading Hainan provincial officials and led to the punishment of the chief editor of the newspaper after 4 June. Personal interview with chief editor, Cheng Kai, 24 November 1991, Washington, D.C.

5. Lenin, What Is to Be Done? ch. 5. See Completed Works of Lenin (Chinese Edition) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1987), Vol. 5, pp. 470–488.

6. Marx served as an editor of Rheinische Zeitungfur Politik, Handel and Gewerbe in 1842–1843, Marx and Engels as editors of Neus Rheinsiche Zeitung: Organ der Demokratie in the late 1840s, Lenin as an editor of Flake, Mao Zedong as an editor of Xiangjiang pinglun in the late 1910s, and Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping as editors of Red Spark.

7. The People's Daily (Renmin ribao, hereafter RMRB), 20 June 1988.

8. Yujun, Bao, “Zhishifenzi zhengce xuanchuan zhong de ji jian shi” (“Several events of propagandizing the policy about intellectuals”), in the editing group for the RMRB history (ed.), Renmin ribao huiyilu: 1948–1988 (Memoirs of the People's Daily: 1948–1988) (Beijing: RMRB chubanshe, 1988), p. 256.Google Scholar

9. Rongkang, Fan, “Xinwen pinglun de fenlei” (“Classification of news commentaries”), Xinwen zhanxian (News Front), February 1985, pp. 26–27.Google Scholar

10. As a reference on the classification of commentaries in the People's Daily see ibid., January 1985, pp. 31–33, February 1985, pp. 26–27, March 1985, pp. 27–29. Fan was the Director of the Commentary Department and then the Deputy Chief Editor in charge of commentaries of the newspaper from the late 1970s to 1990.

11. Fifteen commentaries for the New China News Agency by Mao are found in the fourth volume (the Civil War period) of Mao Zedong xuanji (Selected Works of Mao Zedong) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1960).

12. Jiang, Qian, “Renmin ribao yi jiu liu nian gaibian” (“1956 reform of the People's Daily”) in the Journalism Institute of CASS (ed.), Xinwen yanjiu ziliao (News Research Materials) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1988), No. 43, pp. 37–39Google Scholar; Xiaokang, Su, Wutuobang ji (A Sacrifice to Utopia) (Beijing: Zhongguo xinwen chubanshe, 1989)Google Scholar, ch. 1.

13. See Ronkang, Fan, “Re hun de huhua” (“The ravings from fever”) Xinwen zhanxian, August 1984, pp. 31–33.Google Scholar

14. Ibid.

15. An example, “Qingchu jingshen wuran ye shi yi zhong sixiang jiefang” (“Eliminating the spiritual pollution is also a thought liberation”), RMRB, 12 November 1983.

16. They are: Hai, Kui, “Ruguo suoyou de muqin dou sheng nanhai” (“If all mothers had boys”), RMRB, 7 March 1983Google Scholar; and Zi, Chi, “Dajia doulai zhengjiu xianhe he qita zhengui dongwu” (“Let all people help red-crowned crane and other precious animals survive”), RMRB, 9 March 1983.Google Scholar

17. See the General Editing Office of the Fujian Daily “Shengwei zhongshi liyong baozhi zhidao gongzuo” (“The provincial Party Committee devotes much attention to using the newspaper to guide work”), Xinwen zhanxian, June 1982, pp. 9–10.

18. See Fengyi, Yang, “Shengwei shuji wei women baozhi xie wenzhang” (“Secretary of the provincial Party Committee writes articles for our newspaper”), Xinwen zhanxian, October 1984, p. 18.Google Scholar

19. The editorials are: “Ba fandui zichanjieji ziyouhua de douzheng yinxiang shenru” (“Deepen the struggle against bourgeois liberalization”) and “Gaige kaifang bujin yao jianchi erqie yao jiakuai” (“Insist on and speed up reform and openness”). The full text of the 13 May speech is also found in RMRB, 10 July 1987. The present author wrote this speech for Zhao, and it was revised by Bao Tong, a top assistant to Zhao.

20. See Demin, Li, “Pinglun de xuanti” (“Selecting ideas for commentaries”) Xinwen zhanxian, March 1990, pp. 28–29.Google Scholar

21. See Di, Gao, “Jianchi dangbao de dangxing yuanze” (“Insist on the Party-character principle of Party newspaper”), Xinwen zhanxian, January 1990, p. 4Google Scholar; and Guoguang, Wu, “Renmin ribao she neibu guanyu si er liu shelun de Hang ci bianlun” (“Two debates on 26 April editorial within the Editing Departments of the People's Daily”), Meizhou huaqiao ribao (China Daily News, published in New York before mid-1989)Google Scholar, 20, 21, 22 July 1989.

22. “Qieshijiejue shangfang wenti,” RMRB, 17 September 1979, p. 3. The October article is “Zhengque duidai shangfang wenti,” RMRB, 22 October 1979, p. 1.

23. Fan Rongkang, “Zhengce yu ganqing” (“Policies and feelings”), in the Editing Group (ed.), The People's Daily Memoirs, pp. 36–40. Mr Fan was the author of these two articles.

24. Chen Mo, “Days and nights in the Chinese Youth News”, p. 32.

25. Fan Rongkang, “Policies and feelings,” p. 39.

26. Guoguang, Wu, “Qieshuo ‘wu ge zhiwei ba ke ya’” (“Comments about ‘Five Party Committee men with eight teeth’”), RMRB 28 March 1986.Google Scholar

27. RMRB, 26 July 1984 (“Yi ge shi ti, Yi ge shi rang”).

28. Ibid., 28 September 1988 (“Fahui women de zhengzhi youshi,” by Wu Guoguang).

29. Personal notes. The editorial (by Yu Ning) “Jinyibu tigao renshi” (“Deepen understanding further”) is found in RMRB, 10 July 1987.

30. The editorial (by Li Renchen) “Rang Yugong jingshen man Shenzhou” (“Let Yugong's spirit spread over China”) is found in RMRB, 1 January 1986.

31. Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. 3, pp. 1125–28.

32. The first article of this series, “Zhengzhi wenti keyi taolun” (“Political issues are allowed to be discussed”) (by Yu Ning) is found in RMRB, 30 August 1986.

33. Rongkang, Fan, “Dai kaiken de chunudi” (“A virgin land which is waiting for cultivation”), Xinwen zhanxian, January 1984, p. 22.Google Scholar The editorial (by Fan Rongkang) is found in RMRB, 21 July 1979.

34. See Demin, Li, “Zenyang xie duan pinglun” (“How to write brief comments”), Xinwen zhanxian, October 1984, p. 27.Google Scholar

35. The columns are: “Jinri tan” (“Comments today”), and “Meizhou luntan” (“Weekly forum”). About their writing and editing, see Renchen, Li, “Tantan ‘jinri tan’ de bianji” (“About editing ‘Comments Today’”), Xinwen jizhe (The Journalists, published in Shanghai), November 1983Google Scholar; and Guoguang, Wu, “Da xiao, ruan ying, xu shi zhijian” (“Between huge and small, soft and hard, theoretical and empirical: editing ‘Weekly Forum’”), Xinwen zhanxian, March 1986, pp. 8–9.Google Scholar

36. This document was reprinted in Xinwen zhanxian, December 1980, p. 5.

37. Cited in Xiuqiang, Zhou, “Shelun shi baozhi de qizhi: lun Deng Tuo guanyu baozhi shelun de lilun” (“Editorials are banners of a newspaper: Deng Tuo's theory about newspaper editorial”), Xinwen zhanxian, May 1986, p. 9.Google Scholar

38. Deng Tuo's speech to a training class for leading journalists at the Central Party School of the CCP. Ibid. p. 9.

39. Yiqing, Sun, “Texing, dangxing ji qita” (“The distinguishing features, the Party characters and others”) Xinwen yanjiu ziliao (News Research Materials) (Beijing: Zhongguo zhanwang chubanshe, 1982), No. 14, pp. 39–40.Google Scholar

40. For the examples about Mao, see Li Zhuang, Wo zai Renmin ribao sishi nian, p. 136; for Liu, see Zhixing, Zhou, “Liu Shaoqi tongzhi he dang de xinwen gongzuo” (“Comrade Liu Shaoqi and the journalistic works of the Party”), Xinwen yanjiu ziliao. No. 31 (1987), p. 19Google Scholar; for Zhou, see Cui Qi's article in People's Daily Memoirs, pp. 11–29; for Peng, see Jin, Fan, “Huainian he jingyi: Huiyu shiwei dui Beijing ribao de lingdao” (“Reminders and respects: memory on the leadership of the City Committee to the Beijing Daily”), Xinwen yanjiu ziliao, No. 17 (1983), pp. 48–52Google Scholar; for Xiang, see n. 17; for Gao, see the General Editing Office of the Hebei Daily, “Shengwei diyi shuji kan dayang” (“The first secretary revises the final proof), Xinwen zhanxian, November 1984, p. 5.

41. This article (by Wu Guoguang), “Meiyou shehui zhuyi minzhu jiu meiyou shehui zhuyi xiandaihua,” is found in RMRB, 8 May 1986.

42. Cui Qi, “Huiyi Zhou Zongli dui Renmi ribao guoji xuanchuan de guanhuai he zhidao” (“Remembering the guidance of Prime Minister Zhou for the international propaganda of RMRB”), in the Editing Group of RMRB History (ed.), The People's Daily Memoirs, pp. 12, 14.

43. Ibid. pp. 11–27.

44. Gao Di, “Insist on Party-character principle,” pp. 3–6.

45. See Li Demin, “Selection of commentary topics.”

46. Honggeng, Ji, “Zongshuji xianchang shen xinwen” (“General Secretary censors a news draft on the spot”), Xinwen zhanxian, February 1990, p. 12.Google Scholar

47. Seen. 12.

48. Xi, Yuan, “Renmin ribao dui dianying Wu Xun zhuan de pipan” (“Criticism of the movie Biography of Wu Xun in the People's Daily”), Xinwen yanjiu ziliao. No. 45 (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1989), pp. 1–18.Google Scholar

49. Seen. 21.

50. Feng, Lin, “Gai de hao!” (“What excellent revision!”), Xinwen zhanxian, February 1981, pp. 4–5.Google Scholar

51. Guoguang, Wu, “The situation in the Chinese press before June Fourth, 1989,” an essay presented at the “China Day” conference sponsored by the Nieman Foundation for Journalists and the John King Fairbank Center for East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 21 November 1989.Google Scholar

52. See Guoguang, Wu, “Luntan shang chuilai yigu qingxin de feng” (“A fresh breeze is blowing into the field of commentary”) Xinwen zhanxian, September 1986, pp. 14–16.Google Scholar The commentator's articles mentioned here are found in the China Youth News, 6 June 1986 (by Chen Xiaochuan), 25 June 1986 (by Mi Bohua), 10 July 1986 (by Ma Licheng), and in RMRB, Overseas Edition, 3 July 1986 (by Peng Di).

53. The author drafted this document for the Leading Group when he worked as an assistant to Bao Tong, a head of this group in 1987–88.

54. See Rongkan, Fan, “Xinwen pinglun de yiban tezheng” (“General features of news commentary”) Xinwen zhanxian, March 1984, p. 26.Google Scholar

55. Scott, James C., Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985)Google Scholar, passim.

56. The news “Guangzhou zai gaige kaifang zhong jingli le san ci chongjibo” (“Guangzhou facing three times of challenge in the reform and openness”) and the RMRB commentator's article (by Wu Guoguang) “Zai bolang chongji zhong qianxing” (“Advancing ahead in the waves”) are found in RMRB, 25 August 1986.

57. See Lidan's, Chen article in Xinwen jizhe (The Journalists), October 1986, pp. 23–25.Google Scholar

58. See the Party Secretary of Guangzhou Xu Shijie's talk on this event, in Yangcheng wanbao (Yangcheng Evening News), 26 August 1986.

59. These figures come from the author's own count of articles.

60. For example, see “Gaige kaifang gaohuo de fangzhen bu hui bian” (“The policies of reform and openness will not be changed”), a news report on Zhao's conversation with a Hungarian leader, RMRB, 19 January 1987; Zhao's speech at the Spring Festival Celebrating Meeting, “Fandui ziyouhua bugao zhengzhi yundong” (“No political campaign for anti-liberalization”), RMRB, 29 January 1987; and Zhao's speech at the national conference of the propaganda heads, RMRB, 15 March 1987. The No. 4 document of the Central Committee was also issued to limit the campaign in February 1987.

61. The figures come from the author's own count.

62. For example, in the last restructuring of the leadership of the People's Daily in 1986 before 4 June, two of the three deputy chief editors of the newspaper were senior commentators.

63. See Guoguang, Wu, “Cong ‘ganzi’ tizhi yu ‘ganzi’ renge zhong jiefang chulai” (“Liberate ourselves from the institutions and personalities as pens in hands of the Party”), Xinwenxueyuan (News Field), No. 4 (1988), pp. 9–12Google Scholar; and Bohua, Mi, “Bu zuo ‘ganzi’” (“No being pens in the hands of the Party”), Xinwenjizhe, No. 11 (1988), p. 21.Google Scholar

64. See Kenez, The Propaganda State; and Pye, Lucian W. (ed.), Communications and Political Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963)Google Scholar, ch. 1.